Chapter 15 - Waterfowl and Seabirds

15. Waterfowl And Seabirds

Participant in LIA Study: "They [the Elders] didn't mind if we got the male species, because we could tell which was what...for example, the eider ducks, the male is white and black in colour and...is not hard to identify. We were not to bother or interfere with birds that have young, because the young can't fend for themselves." (Williamson 1997a:50)

This chapter focuses on waterfowl and seabirds typically inhabiting marine habitat of the Landscape Region, although some species (e.g., Canada goose, American black duck, mergansers) may also nest or forage in adjacent freshwater habitat. Waterfowl are an important indicator of a healthy environment due to their dependence on aquatic habitat. Waterfowl and seabirds are relatively abundant, and they are a source of food (meat or eggs) to residents in the Landscape Region. Species include members of the family Anatidae (ducks, geese and swans), Alcidae (murres, puffins), Procellariiformes (petrels, fulmars and shearwaters) and Laridae (gulls and terns). Harlequin duck have special conservation status as designated by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Species in Canada (COSEWIC 1996), and are discussed in Chapter 18.

15.1 Existing Environment

Waterfowl are the most prominent and economically important group of migratory birds in North America (CWS and USFWS 1986). Within the Landscape Region, waterfowl are particularly important for subsistence and recreational hunting. Many waterfowl species breed in Labrador. Labrador's contribution to the waterfowl populations of the Atlantic Flyway is substantial, estimated at 150,000 geese (63 percent), 165,000 dabbling ducks (25 percent) and 255,000 diving ducks (55 percent) annually (Goudie and Whitman 1987).

Twenty-four species of seabirds inhabit coastal and offshore areas of Labrador (Brown 1986; Nettleship 1980; Todd 1963; Waugh 1921-1922). Most of these breed in two areas along the coast of Labrador: the Groswater Bay-Table Bay area and the Nain area, which includes Voisey's Bay (Figure 15.1).

Waterfowl and seabirds start to arrive annually in the Landscape Region during April and remain until at least September. Most seabird species start to move offshore in July and August following the breeding season, while the Nain area continues to be used by molting and staging eiders, scoters, and murres. A variety of gulls also occupy coastal areas during this period and may remain until December.

15.1.1 Environmental Assessment Boundaries

Capitalized terms used (such as Landscape Region and VBNC Claim Block) may be defined in other chapters. Some terms and phrases used may have different definitions in other chapters depending upon the context in which they are used; for example, the Assessment Area.

Project activities will take place within habitat used by migratory waterfowl and seabirds. The environmental assessment boundary (Assessment Area) is the spatial extent of the habitat (Figure 15.1) used by the Labrador populations of these species, since these are the breeding populations for those individuals that will interact with the Project. Waterfowl and seabird species may fly by, stage, or nest in the VBNC Claim Block and areas in the vicinity of the shipping route from April to as late as December. Although VBNC studies have focused on waterfowl and seabirds near the VBNC Claim Block and shipping route, environmental effects predictions will be made in consideration of the Labrador populations of waterfowl and seabirds.

Figure 15.1 Assessment Area for Waterfowl and Seabirds

15.1.1.1 Administrative Boundaries

Waterfowl and seabirds in North America are solely or jointly managed (depending on the species) between Canada and the United States through Environment Canada (Canadian Wildlife Service). Current legislation and agreements regarding waterfowl include the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds (1916) and the North American Waterfowl Management Plan. Migratory birds in North America have benefited from protection and other conservation measures implemented under this treaty and treaties in other countries (e.g., Mexico). Within the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, a specific strategy has been identified to ensure that subsistence users are cooperatively involved in the management of the waterfowl resource and the protection of its habitat (CWS and USFWS 1986). Waterfowl are managed according to "Flyways" denoting wintering and summering habitat connected by international migration corridors. Labrador occurs within the Atlantic Flyway. Additional provincial, federal, and international management is focused on the protection of specific breeding colonies.

15.1.1.2 Technical Boundaries

Extensive data on waterfowl and seabirds in Labrador and within the Assessment Area have been compiled. Due to the migratory nature of these birds, it is difficult to detect changes due to perturbations or other causes at a local level.

15.1.2 Methods

Seabird distribution data for Labrador have been compiled from earlier studies in areas encompassing the Landscape Region such as the Offshore Labrador Biological Studies (OLABS) program, a detailed census of the major seabird colonies (Nettleship 1980), and data collected from shipboard surveys (Brown 1986; Lock 1980). Waterfowl surveys have been previously conducted in sections of the Landscape Region through research initiated by Department of National Defence (DND) (Brown 1986; Brown 1992; JWEL 1992; JWEL 1994; JWEL 1995; JWEL 1996a; JWEL 1997a), and Environment Canada (Brown 1986; Goudie and Whitman 1987; Goudie et al. 1994). Current estimates of waterfowl along the Atlantic Flyway are based upon dedicated surveys, harvest returns, and extrapolations from wetland habitat capabilities throughout eastern North America.

Seasonal habitat used by waterfowl and seabirds in the Assessment Area was determined by using Aboriginal knowledge, field observations and surveys, relevant literature, and discussions with knowledgeable researchers. Survey information is available from waterfowl surveys since the mid-1980s (Goudie et al. 1994) and 1991-1996 (JWEL 1997a); seven aerial surveys (May-June) during 1995 and 1996 (JWEL 1996b; 1997b); three aerial and ground surveys (July-August) by DND during 1996 in selected rivers; and three staging surveys in the bays in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block and proposed shipping routes during 1995 and 1996 (JWEL 1996b; 1997b). Inuit environmental knowledge, compiled by Williamson (1997), was also used to provide insight into habitat use, population trends, and resource use of these species in the Landscape Region.

15.1.3 Existing Conditions

The Landscape Region has been identified as an important area for waterfowl and seabirds. Aerial surveys along the entire Labrador Coast in June 1980 (Lock 1980) indicated that the bays around Nain supported the greatest numbers of scoters and relatively high numbers of common eiders, Canada geese, and other ducks. Aerial and shipboard surveys of coastal and offshore areas by Brown (1986) also indicated the relative importance of the Landscape Region for seabirds (particularly alcids and gulls).

A variety of species including common eider, merganser, oldsquaw, American black duck, northern pintail, common goldeneye, gull, black guillemot, and terns occur in Voisey's Bay and adjacent bays, lakes and rivers (Williamson 1997a; Brown 1986; Nettleship 1980; Brice-Bennett 1977; Waugh 1921-1922). Although harvesting of waterfowl occurs throughout the coastal areas of the Landscape Region, the Gooseland (located in Voisey's Bay at the mouth of Reid Brook) is particularly well known by the Innu and Inuit as a good hunting ground for Canada geese staging in the spring of the year (Brice-Bennett 1977: 120; Williamson 1997a; Armitage 1990: 44). Species hunted by the Inuit in the fall of the year throughout the Landscape Region (Figure 15.2) include American black duck, common eider, Canada goose, black guillemot, mergansers, northern pintail, oldsquaw, common goldeneye, green-winged teal and scoters. In June and July, the Inuit also collect eggs from nests located on nearshore islands in the Landscape Region (Figure 15.3).

15.1.3.1 Voisey's Bay - Gooseland

"I am sure everybody who has been in Voisey's Bay or worked in the area know about the Gooseland in the bottom of Voisey's Bay which is a very important staging area and somewhat of a nesting area for black ducks as well as geese." (Tony Williamson, Panel scoping meetings in Nain, April 17, 1996b)

The Gooseland is an area of saltwater sedge and mud/sand flats at the head of Voisey's Bay immediately west of the mouth of Reid Brook (Figure 15.2). The diversity of waterfowl in this area is high compared to other parts of the Assessment Area (JWEL 1996b; 1997b; Williamson 1997a). Canada goose are present here spring, summer, and fall (JWEL 1996b; 1997b; Waugh 1921-1922).

The Gooseland is one of the first areas free of snow in the spring, thus making it attractive to Canada goose for feeding and resting. More than 150 Canada goose can be expected to be seen there at any one time in the spring (JWEL 1997b). The short grass on the salt marsh flats is probably an important food source for Canada goose when other food sources are unavailable due to snow cover. Surveys of the Gooseland in the spring have revealed that Canada geese return as early as May 16, with numbers increasing soon afterwards (JWEL 1996b; 1997b).

"Gooseland, at the head of our bay...that's where the geese pitch when they're goin' north and comin' back. The Indians used to build a square out of logs and they'd get in there with a shot gun and wait for the geese to pitch. Sometimes they'd get five or six a shot. She was full, full of geese and they'd pitch right alongside of them. Oh my, that's a wonderful place." (Ed Voisey, Them Days, Vol. 22, No. 2:117)

Several hunting blinds constructed of drift wood on the Gooseland are indicative that the salt marsh is a favoured hunting site. A newly renovated hunting blind and signs of recent camping activity in May 1996 indicated that hunting occurred between VBNC study visits in September 1995 and late May 1996.

Canada goose appear to use the Gooseland primarily for resting. Nesting is not believed to occur on the Gooseland. No broods or nests were found during ground surveys in 1996 (JWEL 1997b). During surveys conducted in June and July 1996, 30 geese were observed at the Gooseland, but they were non-breeding birds.

The largest number of birds observed in the Gooseland during VBNC studies were reported during the post-breeding period, in August and September (JWEL 1996b; 1997b). On August 16, 1996, 144 Canada geese were observed on the Gooseland. Large numbers of both geese and other waterfowl (600 in August and 995 in September) were also observed by the Canadian Wildlife Service at this location in 1982 (Bateman and Hicks 1995).

Figure 15.2 Autumn-Winter Waterfowl Harvesting, 1977-1997

Figure 15.3 Spring-Summer Bird Egg Collecting, 1977-1997

The predominance of purple-coloured goose droppings on the Gooseland in August indicated that geese were feeding on berries. Crowberries (Empetrum sp.) are known to be an important food source for Canada geese in late summer, but they do not grow on the Gooseland. The geese probably feed on berries elsewhere, before returning to the Gooseland.

The Gooseland is also important for other species of waterfowl. Large numbers of American black ducks also use the Gooseland. American black ducks arrive in early May and depart in October. Eighteen were observed as early as May 8, 1996, when the area was predominantly frozen (JWEL 1997b). None was observed breeding on the Gooseland, although the habitat appeared suitable. The Inuit report that this area is used for breeding by black ducks (Williamson 1997a) and 32 black duck were observed here on June 1995 (JWEL 1996). Peak numbers of black ducks occur in the post-breeding season. Black ducks feed on the tidal flats at low tide and rest on the beaches and small ponds of the Gooseland during high tide.

One or possibly two broods of green-winged teal were observed on the shallow pools of the Gooseland during VBNC studies in the 1995 and 1996 breeding season. Northern pintail and mallard occur at the Gooseland, although in small numbers. The grass flats and extensive tidal flats provide nesting habitat for shorebirds.

Participant in LIA Study: "Oh they [scoters] were plenty. You'd never believe it. Down to Franks Brook Shoal where the river comes out there's a shoal there and when they'd fly up the sun would fair dark, darken the sun even, they was so plenty. September was the best month for young pigeons. They'd be out all over the bay." (Williamson 1997a: 15)

The shallow water of inner Voisey's Bay provides good feeding habitat for waterfowl, gulls, and terns. Small numbers of surf scoter were seen during July and August. Red-breasted merganser was the most abundant diving duck. A single flock of 160 waterfowl observed July 19, 1995 was comprised mostly of post-breeding males. Several females with small young were observed during August among the boulders nearshore, indicating that nesting of this species occurs in the vicinity of Voisey's Bay.

Herring gull was the most common of the five species of gull found in Voisey's Bay. The presence of juvenile ring-billed gulls suggests local breeding, which would indicate a previously unrecorded northward extension of its breeding range. The only documented ring-billed gull colonies in Labrador are in Lake Melville (Godfrey 1986).

Participant in LIA "I've been up there [Voisey's Bay] since I left. Not a diver [scoter] to be seen, but where's they gone? They'd come there in the spring and they'd stay there all the summer. And that's all gone. I can't understand it." (Williamson 1997a:16)

Several islands within Voisey's Bay (Figure 15.3) serve as egg collecting areas for Inuit in spring (Williamson 1997a). A colony of common terns is located on an island on the south side of Voisey's Bay. Fifty adult and 30 immature terns were feeding over shallow water off the Gooseland on August 17, 1995. A large group of 225 adult common terns was feeding in the shallow water and resting on a sandbar off Gooseland on August 16, 1996. Common tern nesting in Voisey's Bay indicates a previously unrecorded northward extension of its breeding range. Common tern nesting has not been previously recorded north of Lake Melville (Godfrey 1986).

15.1.3.2 Kangeklualuk Bay and Throat Bay

Participant in LIA Study: "Black ducks seemed to have decreased quite a bit over the years...geese haven't seemed to change at all, they seems to be about the same as they always were, except that some times their coming earlier...over the last ten years especially." (Williamson 1997a:32)

Kangeklualuk Bay and Throat Bay are long, narrow inlets of deep water. Most of the shoreline of these bays is rocky, which provides a poor feeding area for waterfowl and seabirds (JWEL 1997b). The habitat of Kangeklualuk Bay changes at the north side of the entrance on the north side where the shoreline is sandy and, unlike the rest of the bay, there is an extensive tidal mud flat. On the south side of Kikkertavak Island (near the mouth of Kangeklualuk Bay) are several nesting waterfowl areas (Figure 15.3) that are egg collecting areas for Inuit in spring (Williamson 1997a). Surveys of Kangeklualuk Bay in summer indicated that waterfowl and seabirds occurred in low numbers. Black guillemots and surf scoters were the more abundant species. In mid-September 1995, a shoreline survey for waterfowl and seabirds indicated 125 individuals throughout Kangeklualuk Bay and 63 individuals in Throat Bay (JWEL 1996b). Most of these individuals were gulls.

During spring and summer surveys in 1995 and 1996, small numbers of waterfowl were frequently seen in salt water at the mouth of the brook that flows into the northwest corner of Kangeklualuk Bay. A Canada goose nest was found on a small island 100 m upstream from salt water in June 1996. During field surveys in August 1996, American black duck, mallard, northern pintail and green-winged teal were startled into flight from the fresh water pools behind the sand beach and from the tidal flats. An abundance of Canada goose droppings were noted in the same area during a ground survey August 1996.

15.1.3.3 Anaktalak Bay and Shipping Route

Anaktalak Bay is a wide and deep bay of steep rocky headlands and protected shallow coves with extensive mud tidal flats. Small flocks of American black ducks feed on the tidal flats in spring and late summer (JWEL 1996b; 1997b). A shoreline survey of intertidal habitat of the inner Anaktalak Bay and Akuliakatak Peninsula identified 126 American black ducks on 11 June 1995 (JWEL 1996b). American black ducks were also observed resting on a short grassy spit near Tabor Island during high tide in August 1996. Later the same day at low tide these same black ducks were seen feeding on the tidal flats between Tabor Island and the mainland.

Small numbers of common goldeneye, surf scoter, common eider and red-breasted merganser are present in Anaktalak Bay during the ice free season (JWEL 1996b; 1997b). Black guillemot feed off the headlands in small numbers. Adult black guillemot were observed on the water at the base of a cliff on Tabor Island in August 1996, indicating that nesting sites occur nearby.

Herring gulls feed on the tidal flats throughout Anaktalak Bay. Up to 25 were feeding on the Edward's Cove tidal flats each day surveyed during August 1996. A nesting colony of glaucous gulls was found on the same Tabor Island cliff face where a colony of black guillemots is believed to be located.

Waterfowl and seabird habitats were observed during VBNC aerial surveys of islands between Edward's Cove and Sandy Island (Figure 15.4). Most of these islands are comprised of exposed rock with minimal vegetation cover. Some tidal areas of shoreline habitat occur on Sandy Island, around Ford's Harbour, the south shore of Paul Island, and smaller, scattered islands. Black guillemot were observed to be the most common species during summer; herring gull was the most common in the fall. A shoreline survey for waterfowl and seabirds in September 1995 indicated 4,900 animals throughout inner and outer Anaktalak Bay to the east end of Paul Island (JWEL 1996b).

Figure 15.4 Seabird Colonies (July 1996 Surveys) and the Shipping Route

Two offshore colonies (the Castle and the Pyramids) have been reported as candidate/proposed reserves for protection by the Newfoundland and Labrador Government (Oram 1995). Both of these locations have been reported to support 5,000 pairs of thick-billed murres (Nettleship and Glenn 1992; Ballam 1993) and many were observed during surveys in 1996 (JWEL 1997b). Common eiders, Canada geese, mergansers, gulls, Atlantic puffins and razorbills commonly nest and/or feed on or near many of these offshore islands (e.g., Paul Island, Humby's Island, Satosoak Island, Niatak Island). Several of these islands (Figure 15.3) serve as egg collecting areas for the Inuit in spring (Williamson 1997a). Common eider migrate south along the Labrador Coast during fall. An October 1995 survey, designed to identify the relative importance of the islands along the shipping route, indicated little use by this species (374 individuals) at that time (JWEL 1996b). Over 4,000 waterfowl and seabirds were observed during this survey. Tubenoses are abundant and widely dispersed off the Labrador coast, with a peak of 250 birds/km² in northern Labrador (including the Landscape Region) in August (MacLaren Marex Incorporated 1980).

15.1.4 Likely Future Conditions

Within the lifespan of the Project, and in the absence of Project activities, the expected condition of waterfowl and seabirds within the Landscape Region may decline. Inuit have observed a steady decline in populations of common eider, American black duck, scoter, black guillemot, murre, and dovekie throughout the Landscape Region during the last 20 years (Williamson 1997a). Although many species are still known to visit the area, their numbers are greatly reduced as compared to the past. For instance, it has been reported that nesting common eider and gulls in Voisey's Bay have been mostly replaced by Arctic terns (Williamson 1997a). Common eiders have appeared to move their nesting sites to islands farther offshore. Canada goose is the only species that does not appear to be decreasing.

A number of reasons have been suggested for these declines (Williamson 1997a). Increase in the use of snowmobiles and speedboats since the 1960s has provided more people with increased access to waterfowl populations. This has resulted in increased hunting pressure and noise disturbance. The Inuit suggest that, as a result, birds have moved from their traditional nesting sites to less accessible areas or have abandoned the area completely. Natural factors are also thought to be contributing to the decline in waterfowl populations. Natural predation on eggs and young have increased as a result of the population increase of the coloured fox, and there is believed to be a decrease in alternate marine food sources (i.e., capelin, cod, sculpin) for gulls. Waterfowl are also under recreational and subsistence hunting pressure in other parts of Labrador and throughout the Atlantic Flyway. Predicted climatic changes in the Landscape Region could result in an increase in sea level, leading to some increased flooding and a potential loss of shoreline nesting and feeding area. An increase of 12 cm in mean sea level projected to occur over the life of the Project (Section 8.1.3.1) may inundate low lying habitat used for feeding and nesting.

15.2 Environmental Effects Assessment

Interactions between the Project and waterfowl and seabirds are limited to areas of habitat near the shipping route and airstrip. Potential environmental effects are summarized in Table 15.1. A synthesis of the environmental effects assessment is set forth in Appendix 15A.

Table 15.1 Potential Environmental Effects

Potential Environmental Effects	Project Phase	Activities
physical alteration/loss of habitat	construction	port construction dredging
noise and human presence	construction operation decommissioning	port construction helicopter, aircraft blasting tailings management human presence shipping
bioaccumulation	operation decommissioning post-decommissioning	mine rock management ventilation effluent management

15.2.1 Physical Alteration or Loss of Habitat

Waterfowl and seabird productivity may be affected by physical disturbances resulting from Project activities such as the presence of structures near the shore of bays, and increased flooding of some ponds or dewatering along rivers or bays.

Surficial disturbance and loss or alteration of marine habitat will occur only during construction of the port and the associated dredging. The establishment of dams and construction of roads and other facilities will occur in riparian habitat potentially used for nesting by Canada geese (JWEL 1997b). Aquatic invertebrates, a food source for waterfowl and seabirds, may also be negatively affected by these activities, which would reduce the habitat quality of the area. The most important habitat for waterfowl in the Landscape Region, the Gooseland, will not be physically altered by the Project.

15.2.2 Noise and Human Presence

Residents of North Coast communities have expressed concern regarding the potential for additional harvesting pressure on waterfowl and seabirds. Hunting by VBNC personnel will not be permitted in the VBNC Claim Block or in any other areas while employees are working at the Project. Therefore, waterfowl and seabirds will not experience any additional harvesting pressure due to the Project. Policies will be implemented so that VBNC personnel will be directed not to feed or harass any wildlife.

Inuit have expressed concerns that noise from the operation of ships and the mine and mill will affect populations of waterfowl and seabirds (Williamson 1997a). Nesting sites are considered particularly sensitive to disturbances from human predation, ships, small boat traffic, and low-flying aircraft. Inuit are concerned that these disturbances may cause relocation from traditional breeding sites or complete abandonment of the area.

Colonial nesting birds (including common eiders and black guillemots) are sensitive to disturbance; for example, sudden exodus with possible loss of eggs or young over cliffs (DND 1994). Studies have shown that noise and visual disturbance may cause a flight or panic response at colonies, resulting in avoidance or abandonment of important habitat or nests (Dufour 1980; DND 1994). Following a disturbance, a nest can be more susceptible to predation (Choate 1967). This effect has also been reported for other species of waterfowl and seabirds (Todd 1963; Lock and Ross 1973; Burger 1981). Noise from vessels and human activities of a sufficient level may result in reduced breeding success (Dzubin 1984).

Disturbance due to noise or visual stimuli can also cause increased energy expenditure in seabirds even during non-breeding periods. For example, the heart rate of several seabird species has been reported to increase two to four times (as a result of a disturbance), even though there was no external sign of stress (Jungius and Hirsch 1979). Juvenile birds are considered to be the most sensitive as they require energy for growth and maintenance (DND 1994). Any increase in energy demand may result in the depletion of fat reserves required for growth or unsuccessful migration.

Waterfowl may not avoid areas of human activity during breeding but have shown avoidance of these areas during early brood-rearing (Kuchel 1977). Reduced reproductive success has been reported in the vicinity of human activity (Bengtson 1972; Cassirer and Groves 1990), particularly during nesting, incubation, and brood rearing (mid-June to mid-August in Labrador) (Bighorn Environmental Design Ltd. 1996).

"You got planes and choppers flying over and you check around when you are sitting down there...you got a bunch of caribou or you got a bunch of birds flying around. When they hear that noise coming, you know them birds fly away. They are frightened because of the noise. (Edward Aggek, Panel scoping meeting in Hopedale, May 26, 1997)

Noise and presence of humans during construction will contribute to the disturbance of waterfowl and seabird habitat at the port and plant/port access road and, later, during operation and the construction of the North Tailings Basin. These effects, however, are particularly relevant for harlequin duck, which is addressed fully in Chapter 18. Noise above ambient levels and the presence of facilities, equipment, and humans near the plant/port access road will be apparent to waterfowl, but it is not expected to alter movements upstream during spring or within the bays.

A general conclusion regarding noise disturbance and wildlife is that noise levels under 90 dBA or of a continuous or predictable nature have little environmental effect and lead to habituation (Gladwin et al. 1988). Ambient noise levels in the vicinity of rapids and swift flowing streams have been measured to be at least four times as loud as nearby forested areas in Labrador (Trimper et al. in prep.). Ambient noise levels in estuaries and inner bays such as the Gooseland are expected to be as low as 40-50 dBA in calm conditions. Since noise levels for construction and operation activities in the VBNC Claim Block will have levels similar to that of rapids, Project noise may be masked when waterfowl are in the vicinity of rapids and swiftly flowing streams. The exception will occur during blasting, expected to occur up to 7 times per week, when noise levels of 100 dB will extend to the Gooseland and intertidal habitat adjacent to the airstrip. While a startle effect may occur for waterfowl, the single sound events are not expected to cause undue stress or influence reproductive success.

Vessel traffic near seabird colonies in the Landscape Region is already a common occurrence. Therefore, shipping activity should not cause any new environmental effect. Waterfowl and seabirds may temporarily avoid the shipping route but will not experience any long-term environmental effects.

The sound levels required to cause damage to hearing in birds are generally of high intensity or long duration, based on a review of laboratory studies by DND (1994). Noise from Project activities may interfere with vocal communication or with the detection of predators. For example, flocks of waterfowl in open areas detect predators by visual clues, whereas individuals in dense vegetation depend more on noise cues to detect predators.

Projected noise levels during construction and operation in the vicinity of the airstrip, open pit and plant/port access road will not exceed 50 dBA LEQ (equivalent sound level) in areas of potential wetland habitat (except in the immediate vicinity of the airstrip). Aircraft overflights have the potential to disturb a larger proportion of a population when birds are concentrated, such as during staging or if the species is a colonial breeder, during nesting. Reactions to overflights vary by species, season, breeding condition, flock size, and other parameters such as aircraft type, height, and altitude (Gollop et al. 1974; Ward et al. 1986). If disturbed, waterfowl may be expected to expend energy in the escape response or at least spend less time feeding, both affecting fat reserves critical for migration.

Aircraft traffic will be infrequent (i.e., usually less than 2 take offs/landings/day) but can be expected to startle waterfowl and seabirds (particularly geese, American black ducks, gulls) into temporary flight from the Gooseland (approximately 4 km west) and adjacent areas with intertidal habitat. When approaching from or taking off to the west, aircraft altitude will be approximately 147 m above ground level at the Gooseland area. During periods of concentration (i.e., staging during spring (May-early June), flocks may take flight during an overflight. Observations at this location and elsewhere suggest that they will return to the Gooseland immediately thereafter, particularly as the number of overflights per day should be less than two. This should not result in a noticeable increase in the energetic requirements of these birds. Further, collisions with birds are not expected to be a concern as birds, when startled at this location, will tend to fly low (e.g., along the water).

15.2.3 Bioaccumulation

Environmental effects on waterfowl and seabirds associated with the uptake and bioaccumulation of metals have been evaluated through the use of a risk assessment model (Beak International Incorporated 1997). Red-breasted merganser were modelled as a representative waterfowl species. The model considered six metals (nickel, copper, cobalt, zinc, lead, and cadmium) based on contaminant source characterizations (Senes 1997a; 1997b; 1997c) and biological sensitivity. Red-breasted merganser were considered to potentially uptake these elements through a number of pathways, including drinking water, eating fish, and ingestion of sediment.

Four watershed areas were modelled: Voisey's Bay, Kangeklualuk Bay, North Tailings Basin, and Option 5. These sites are adjacent to marine environments.

It was assumed that mergansers reside in the four watersheds modelled for six months of the year and migrate south for the other six months. During their residency at the site, merganser were assumed to obtain all of their food and water from within these watersheds. Since the merganser is piscivorous (fish eating), the marine merganser communities were assumed to have a diet of anadromous Arctic charr and the freshwater merganser communities were assumed to feed on landlocked Arctic charr. The uptake and bioaccumulation of metals from dietary sources is based on ingestion transfer factors which determine the efficiency the metals are transferred from a food source to the merganser. These ingestion transfer factors are based on established literature values, which are primarily available for livestock species. For modelling of the merganser, ingestion transfer factors for poultry were used (IAEA 1994).

Based on exposure, diet, and ingestion transfer, the bioaccumulation of metals in merganser was modelled for 140 years, which includes the post-decommissioning phase. The modelling provided estimates of the incremental dose (mg/kg/day) for each of the metals. The predicted dose concentrations were compared to established lowest observed effect level (LOEL), which are toxicological benchmark concentrations. Species-specific LOEL (benchmark doses) were calculated based on weight following established equation for wildlife (Sample 1996). The LOEL represent the concentration at which some effect on the animal (e.g., weight loss) was observed. These values do not represent acute toxicological thresholds, which are substantially higher. The HQ represents the ratio of the predicted dose to the benchmark dose. An HQ equal to, or greater than, one indicates a predicted dose concentration equal to or greater than the benchmark dose (LOEL). Therefore, an HQ of less than one may be interpreted as representing a dose which is not expected to have an observable effect on the merganser.

The modelling predicted HQ values that were well below one for all metals in the merganser for all four watersheds. All metals had similar HQ values in each of the watersheds. The highest HQs were predicted for nickel in the North Tailings Basin watershed. However, these values were one to five orders of magnitude (10-100,000 times) lower than doses that would be expected to have any effect on waterfowl. The predicted HQs for other metals were lower still.

The merganser is not expected to bioaccumulate metals to a dose concentration which would cause an environmental effect.

15.2.4 Accidental Events

Accidental events could lead to direct mortality or affect food (aquatic plants and invertebrates) through spills of concentrate, fuel or tailings in the vicinity of potential habitat at Edward's Cove, Throat Bay and Kangeklualuk Bay. Forest fires could temporarily remove nesting cover from shoreline vegetation or affect downstream water quality.

15.2.4.1 Oil Spill Contamination

Marine oil pollution is a threat to waterfowl and seabirds, particularly in areas of congregation for staging and feeding, and near breeding colonies (Baker et al. 1991). Unlike marine mammals, waterfowl and seabirds are the marine organisms most affected by an oil spill because they spend an appreciable portion of time at the water surface (Lock et al. 1994; Chardine 1992).

"Outside bird populations could be endangered from oil pollution from the vessels flushing out their bilges as we have already seen out on the island recently." (Ronald Webb, Panel scoping meeting in Nain, April 17, 1997)

Birds coated with oil may be physically impaired to the extent that they are unable to fly or forage (Lock et al. 1994; Koeth and Vauk-Hentzelt 1988). Oil clogs the fine structure of feathers, leading to loss of body heat and buoyancy, resulting in drowning. Stress is worsened when oiled birds increase their metabolic rate to maintain body temperature. The behaviour of species influences the likelihood of their being oiled. Birds that are more susceptible to oiling (i.e., alcids, common eiders, and gulls) include those that spend large periods of time on the water, who are weak fliers that dive often, have flightless feather-moulting stages, dive to feed, and roost at night on water (Lock et al. 1994; Piatt et al. 1985).

The species affected by a spill depends on several factors, including timing of the spill, location, sea state, ice conditions, and weather conditions (Environment Canada 1988). The location of known bird colonies in relation to the shipping routes is shown in Figure 15.4. An oil spill at the southeast portion of Paul Island would likely contact several areas of important habitat for waterfowl and seabirds. Oil spill distribution modelling indicated that within 5 days, a spill in July would contact all important shoreline habitat on the south side of Paul Island, seabird colonies on and east of Niatak Island, and a seabird colony on Humbys Island.

While the shoreline of colonies at Sandy Island is not projected to be contaminated, birds foraging there, as well as at the locations listed above, would become oiled and probably die. Depending on the location and conditions, a spill could also seriously affect dense numbers of tubenoses and other species (e.g., oldsquaws, which occur in large concentrated flocks in fall) foraging in this area and farther offshore (JWEL 1996b). Collectively, such an event could take waterfowl and seabirds years to recover, particularly if a large portion of a colony perished. If birds are encountered during oil spill response, noise-generating devices can be used to drive the birds away.

15.2.4.2 Forest Fires

Forest fires remove organic matter which exposes mineral soil and rock, resulting in sedimentation. Water quality could be affected as organic materials are washed downstream. A change in water quality may affect the production of aquatic invertebrates or the clarity of water and therefore, the importance of feeding areas.

A forest fire would cause waterfowl and seabirds to avoid areas previously used as habitat. Birds would be expected to resume their use of formerly burned areas once the areas had recovered, which could take many years. However, the limited amount of vegetation and saturated conditions of wetland areas would limit the amount of habitat loss.

15.2.5 Cumulative Environmental Effects

Participant in Inuit Study: "Quite often you get 2 or 3 speed boats, you know, day after day going to the same islands...this has to have an effect on those birds." (Williamson 1997a:33)

Harvest by North Coast residents and sport hunters will continue to affect populations of waterfowl and seabirds. Ongoing and future mineral exploration by VBNC and others will result in potentially adverse cumulative environmental effects to waterfowl if breeding occurs in the immediate vicinity of exploration activity. Cumulative environmental effects will include temporary displacement and disturbance through human presence during sensitive periods.

"Helicopters buzz around not only the community but all over Northern Labrador...often when we are out seal hunting, or hunting for migratory birds such as the Canada Goose or different species of ducks, the loud noise of helicopters scare off our wildlife before we get a chance to shoot them. We return home with no goose or with only a few animals for dinner." (Ed Flowers, the Voisey's Bay News, December 1996:29)

Other projects, such as the relocation of Utshimassits and the establishment of the proposed Torngat Mountains National Park, will also introduce some human disturbance in the vicinity of waterfowl habitat. Habitat loss or alteration may be expected in association with the proposed Kamistasin Hydro Project and the Trans-Labrador Highway, on the Mistastin River and Churchill River watersheds, respectively. The Department of National Defence (DND) has modified its Low-level Training Area so that low-level jet activity avoids large areas of concentrated breeding habitat (e.g., Snegamook Lake). As of 1996, the new flying zone extends northwards to a latitude of 55o 30', approximately 135 km south of Voisey's Bay, so flying activities will not overlap with VBNC activities. However, extensive development and human activity on wintering grounds (e.g., New England, southern United States, Central America) is considered more important.

15.2.6 Enviromental Design, Mitigation and Optimization

VBNC is committed to reducing the Project's effects on waterfowl and seabirds through environmental design. Environmental management plans and their implementation will be discussed with regulators, LIA, Innu Nation and others as appropriate. A summary of the key points relevant for waterfowl follows:

implementation of air quality and water management plans;
identification, inventory and consideration of sensitive habitat (i.e., Paul Island, Gooseland, and Voisey's Bay) in Project planning, and subsequent avoidance by pedestrian vehicle and aircraft traffic, where possible;
reduction or avoidance of in-stream activity;
no feeding, harassment or hunting of waterfowl or seabirds by Project personnel permitted;
restriction of all-terrain vehicles to use on designated routes; and
design and implementation of oil and other contaminant spill contingency plans and emergency response in the event of an accident.

15.3 Residual Environmental Effects

The key aspects of the interaction between Project activities and waterfowl and seabirds include disturbances to seabird colonies along the shipping route and disturbance from human presence, blasting, and aircraft noise (on waterfowl using the Gooseland area of Voisey's Bay) during construction and operation.

The definitions for the rating of residual environmental effects significance follows.

A major (significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting the waterfowl or seabird population in Labrador in such a way as to cause a change in abundance and/or change in distribution beyond which natural recruitment (reproduction and immigration from unaffected areas) would not return that population, or any populations or species dependent upon it, to its former level within several generations.

A moderate (significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting a portion of a waterfowl or seabird population in Labrador that results in a change in abundance and/or distribution over one or more generations of that portion of the population or any populations or species dependent upon it, but does not change the integrity of any population as a whole; it may be localised.

A minor (not significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting a specific group of waterfowl or seabird population in Labrador at a localised area and/or over a short period (one generation or less), but not affecting other trophic levels or the integrity of the population itself.

A negligible (not significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting the waterfowl or seabird population or a specific group of individuals at a localised area and/or over a short period in such a way as to be similar in effect to small random changes in the population due to natural irregularities, but having no detectable effect on the population as a whole.

The residual environmental effects, including cumulative environmental effects, remaining after mitigation are listed in Table 15.2.

Table 15.2 Summary of Residual Environmental Effects

Project Phase	Environmental Effect	Significance	Likelihood^a	Sustainable (Capacity) Use of Renewable Resources^a
construction	habitat loss, physical disturbance	negligible (not significant)	n/a	n/a
operation	disturbance, habitat loss, bioaccumulation	negligible (not significant)	n/a	n/a
decommissioning	disturbance	negligible (not significant)	n/a	n/a
post-decommissioning	bioaccumulation	negligible (not significant)	n/a	n/a
accidental events	mortality	moderate (significant)	low	high

^a likelihood and sustainable use of renewable resources are only defined for environmental effects that are significant (moderate or major) (CEAA 1994: 84, 187).
n/a = not applicable

15.3.1 Construction

Waterfowl may be disturbed by Project activities when staging or nesting at the Gooseland or near other wetland habitat in the area of the Project. Human presence, blasting, and aircraft activity during construction will principally affect waterfowl staging at the Gooseland but residual environmental effects are anticipated to be tolerable, although some local and temporary avoidance can be expected from blasting and aircraft activity.

Additional marine traffic associated with the Project is not expected to increase mortality or alter habitats along the shipping route for seabirds and waterfowl. A negligible (not significant) residual environmental effect is predicted during construction.

15.3.2 Operation

Noise and other stimuli may cause temporary disturbance and avoidance during April-May through November, when waterfowl and seabirds occur in the area of the Project. This interaction is expected to only occur for individuals using these streams as a travel corridor.

Bioaccumulation in Kangeklualuk Bay (and other discharge points) due to discharge of treated effluent is not expected to cause any residual environmental effects on individual waterfowl and seabirds that may stage at this location. A negligible (not significant) residual environmental effect is predicted during operation.

15.3.3 Decommissioning

Activities that could affect waterfowl and seabirds during decommissioning will be limited to noise and other stimuli from April-May through November, when waterfowl and seabirds occur in the area of the Project. These activities will be at a much lower level of intensity than during operations. Only some alteration of movements by individuals following corridors will be expected. A negligible (not significant) residual environmental effect is predicted.

15.3.4 Post-Decommissioning

Following decommissioning, residual environmental effects will principally be limited to the continued treatment and discharge of water into marine nearshore waters from former Project infrastructure areas such as the open pit, Headwater Pond, and the North Tailings Basin. Metals are not expected to bioaccumulate to levels that would cause a residual environmental effect. A negligible (not significant) residual environmental effect is predicted.

15.3.5 Accidental Events

A large-scale oil spill would represent the most substantial accidental event for waterfowl and seabirds. The residual environmental effects of oil exposure and ingestion on waterfowl and seabirds are well known. Within the shipping route, an oil spill in Anaktalak Bay (e.g., near Paul Island) during spring or fall could result in the mortality of several thousand animals and cause the loss of individuals or long-term residual environmental effects to seabird colonies. Any residual environmental effects would be temporary with the implementation of the Oil Spill Contingency Plan, but the loss of animals, if it were to occur under these circumstances, would result in a localized moderate (significant) residual environmental effect. The probability of this event occurring is low and there is little scientific uncertainty that the residual environmental effect will occur.

15.3.6 Follow-up Program

There are no compliance monitoring requirements for marine birds. The process for monitoring and follow-up is outlined in Chapter 4.

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Appendix 15A Environmental Effects Assessment Sythesis: Waterfowl and Seabirds