The black bear is common in the Landscape Region and throughout Labrador.
Since it is at the top of the food chain, and requires a large home range,
the black bear is an example of an umbrella species. This means its continued
existence implies that many species below it in the food chain are also
healthy. Black bears are of cultural importance to Innu and Inuit and have
spiritual significance to the Innu. The Innu demonstrate respect to black
bears by referring to them as Nimushum or Nukum (grandfather or grandmother)
and by treating the carcass and den site in a ritualistic manner (Armitage
1990: 131).
The black bear is found throughout most of Canada and currently occupies about 85 percent of its historic range (Kolenosky and Strathearn 1987). Black bears have recently extended their range northward in Labrador to include barren ground habitats as far north as Nachvak Fjord (Veitch and Harrington 1994). All black bears are omnivorous and share certain common characteristics, such as denning in the fall and subsequent emergence in spring. However, it has been suggested that barren ground black bears have larger home ranges and heavier reliance on protein than their forest-dwelling counterparts (Harrington 1994).
Black bears occur throughout the Quebec-Labrador peninsula and have
been observed in all land regions (Western Plateau, Central Ranges, Fraser
River, Saglek/Hopedale, Mistastin Lake and Coastal) of the Landscape Region.
They have been observed on the sea ice and coastal islands, in barrens,
and forest (JWEL 1997). Evidence of denning has been found in barren and
forest habitats, both near the coast and inland.
Project activities will take place within habitat used by black bears
in the Landscape Region, which is the Black Bear Assessment Area within
which environmental effects will be predicted (Figure 17.1). VBNC studies
focused on bears that were fitted with radio-collars after capture and
then released in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block. However this environmental
assessment for black bears considers the bear population that occupies
the entire Landscape Region because bears move in and out of the VBNC Claim
Block, using various types of habitat.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, the black bear population has been considered
abundant and stable. Throughout North America, black bears occupy about
85 percent of their historical range and are now absent from southern parts
of the continent.
Voisey's Bay has been known as an important area for black bears (Williamson 1997). Black bears use forest, barren, and sea ice habitats in the Landscape Region during the spring. During the summer and fall, black bears use forest, barrens, and river habitats (JWEL 1997).
The black bear is an omnivore, meaning it eats both plant and animal matter. Black bears have been known to eat almost anything available to them (Black Bear Management Workshop 1997:4). Due to the flexibility in its diet, the food requirements of a black bear can often be met in even the poorest habitats.
"I am an occasional user of Voisey's Bay as subsistence hunting and I know this area to be exceptionally good habitat for every type of migratory bird, caribou, bear." (Jim Anderson, Panel scoping meeting in Nain, April 17, 1997)
Black bear behaviour and observations during VBNC studies reflect characteristics typical of both barren-ground and forest-dwelling populations elsewhere (JWEL 1997). Field studies conducted in the Landscape Region indicate the black bear's primary food source during spring (April-June) is usually the previous years residual berry crop (Vaccinium spp. and Empetrum spp.). However, black bears are known to hunt and scavenge seals, caribou, moose and capelin during this period. By July, the black bears' diet changes to fresh vegetation (sedges, grasses (Graminae spp.) and seaweed (Fucus spp.). By mid-August, berries emerge and once again become the main diet (JWEL 1997). In years when berry production is low, black bears may compensate by consuming more animal matter such as insects, small mammals, and carrion (Harrington 1994) or migrating arctic charr (Williamson 1997).
Generally, den site selection is influenced by a number of factors, including climate, age, sex, reproductive status, and home range (Teitje and Ruff 1980; Klenner and Kroeker 1990). Habitat features that may be important include elevation, slope, den stability, and canopy cover (Mollohan 1987). Denning habitat in the Landscape Region consists of birch thicket and similar habitats on south or southwest facing slopes, usually in an excavation of a sandy embankment with a root system to support the roof (Harrington 1994; JWEL 1997).
Den sites were identified during the field program. The telemetry surveys indicated that bears selected den sites within 1.5 - 3.0 km of the activities at the Anaktalak Bay Exploration Camp in the fall of 1996 and evidence of previously occupied den sites were found within 300 m of the Voisey's Exploration Camp (JWEL 1997).
The total area of habitat used by one animal is known as a home range.
The home range of a black bear is known to vary in size based on age, sex,
reproductive status and geographic location. Home
ranges of adult females are usually 15-50 km2,
and home ranges of adult males are usually several times larger and have
been reported to be greater than 1,500 km2
(Young and Ruff 1982; Klenner 1987; Kolenosky and Strathearn 1987: 446).
The home ranges of black bears studied by VBNC during 1996 were from 20
km2 to 160 km2
(JWEL 1997). The overlapping home ranges of the black bears that have been
radio-collared are shown in Figure 17.2.
The most critical life stage occurs at 16-17 months, when black bears become independent and must find adequate food while avoiding larger bears (Jonkel and Cowan 1971). During years of low food abundance, cub mortality may be as high as 50 percent, but typically is approximately 20 percent (Kolenosky and Strathearn 1987).
Black bears usually reach their highest body weight prior to fall denning (Banfield 1974). Four adult male black bears in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block weighed 95 to 140 kg during capture in early summer 1996, while six adult females weighed from 45 to 95 kg during the same period (JWEL 1997). These weights are less than those recorded in other regions of North America. Adult male black bears have been recorded weighing up to 280 kg (range of 120-280 kg), while adult females have been recorded weighing over 180 kg (range of 45-182 kg) (Kolenosky and Strathearn 1987: 443).
Generally speaking, the eyesight of the black bear is poor, but they
do have colour vision and can see detail at close range (Bacon and Burghardt
1976). The black bear's sense of hearing is highly developed. Under favourable
conditions, black bears are known to smell carrion at distances of more
than 1.5 km (Kolenosky and Strathearn 1987).
Black bear reproductive rates are generally low. Females are usually
between 3 - 7 years old before they produce their first young, and may
only have young every second or third year following (Kolenosky and Strathearn
1987). Within the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block, black bear productivity
is high, but survivorship of sub-adults appears to be low, depending on
the previous year's food supply (JWEL 1997). Few adults were identified
in the 1996 research.
Denning is an energy-saving tactic that black bears use during the winter when forage quality and quantity is too low for bears to survive (Linnell et al. 1996). Den entry is influenced by a number of factors, including food availability, sex, reproductive status, and age (Schooley et al. 1994). Mothers with cubs and pregnant females are usually the first to enter the den (Poelker and Hartwell 1973) between October and November (JWEL 1997). Black bear cubs are born in the den between January and February (Poelker and Hartwell 1973) and remain with their mothers for up to 17 months (Kolenosky and Strathearn 1987).
Gaining sufficient body weight prior to fall denning is one of the most important factors for the successful completion of pregnancy (Elowe and Dodge 1989). Both seasonal and year-to-year variation in food resources are known to affect reproductive ability and survivorship (Rogers 1987; Schwartz and Franzmann 1991). Four of the six radio-collared female bears observed during spring emergence surveys in 1997 had a total of seven cubs.
Spring emergence surveys conducted for black bears during 1997 revealed
that bears emerged from their dens over a one month period spanning April
and May. Some males in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block have been known
to emerge from their den as early as March and April (JWEL 1997). An Innu
participant at the black bear management workshop stated that bears usually
emerge from their dens in April (Black Bear Management Workshop 1997: 5).
Density estimates for black bears in North America have been reported as 0.37-0.62 bears/km2 in East Central Alberta (Young and Ruff 1982), 0.25-0.40 bears/km2 in Montana (Jonkel and Cowan 1971); and 0.11-0.15 bears/km2 in Western Newfoundland (Dennis et al. 1996). Using bear sightings, calculations of home ranges and observations of bear behaviour, an estimated density of 0.45-0.52 bears/km2 was calculated for the area comprising the Reid Brook Valley, the lower Ikadlivik Valley and Kogluktukoluk Brook, which are prime habitat for black bear (forested valleys). This area is part of the Fraser River Land Region (Lowlands Land District), covering 3,207 km2 (17.3 percent) of the Landscape Region. Applying a conservative density of 0.05 bears/km2 to the remaining terrestrial portion of the Landscape Region, results in a population estimate of approximately 2,200 black bears for the Landscape Region.
Due to the low numbers of young produced annually, bear populations
may be more sensitive to hunting than many ungulate species (Kolenosky
and Strathearn 1987). Depending on food availability and habitat conditions,
the percentage of the population that may be harvested annually without
any substantive effect varies from approximately 3 - 8 percent.
Black bears have been observed near VBNC camp facilities since the beginning of exploration activities in 1994. Bears were likely attracted to food odours associated with camp facilities. Bear sightings and encounters decreased as waste disposal practices improved. Increased human presence, related noise and visual disturbance, and incidental encounters may have also deterred bears.
While many bears have continued to use the areas around exploration facilities with little interaction with people, the increased presence of humans has resulted in encounters between bears and humans. Bears that appeared to pose a risk to human safety were captured and relocated with assistance of provincial Wildlife Division officials. Bears that continued to pose a threat to human safety were shot, usually under the supervision of a wildlife officer. VBNC has recorded over 50 incidents of bear capture (using culvert traps, leg snares and, in one case, aerial darting) since 1994. During the first complete year of exploration activity in 1995, of six bears captured, three were killed at the Project site by exploration personnel. During 1996, of the 41 incidents of black bears captured, four animals were killed. This level declined dramatically in 1997 to only four capture incidents and one animal killed.
Discussions with provincial wildlife officials and other mineral exploration companies indicate that at least 50 black bears (including seven within the VBNC Claim Block) may have been killed in the Landscape Region by mineral exploration companies during 1995-1996.
"Elders are the ones who have the knowledge about the ways of dealing with the animals and so on...Elders should be called directly as they have the knowledge and can give the right advice." (P. Rich, The Voisey's Bay News, July 1996:14)
A workshop on the management of black bears was held at Anaktalak Bay
in March 1997. Innu elders and representatives flew over the Ovoid, Western
Extension, Eastern Deeps and bear den locations in the vicinity of the
Project. The group toured incineration facilities and the Voisey's Exploration
Camp kitchen area. VBNC, consultants, and the regional wildlife manager
(provincial Wildlife Division) made presentations on bear management at
the Project site, bear collaring and tracking, and wildlife regulations.
| Potential Environmental Effects | Project Phase | Project Activities |
| human and black bear encounters |
|
|
| noise and visual disturbance |
|
|
| habitat alteration or loss |
|
|
| Bioaccumulation |
|
|
Bear activity around industrial sites in unpopulated areas has been well documented in Alaska and the Canadian north (Bromley 1985; Follmann and Hechtel 1990). Since black bears are tolerant of humans, encounters are often uneventful and bears will often move away as humans approach (Kolenosky and Strathearn 1987). However, bears and humans may face increased danger when encounters occur by surprise, especially when bears are guarding food, protecting their young, being fed or when using dumps as a food source (Follmann et al. 1980). Bears that consume food from dumps can become habituated and lose their fear of humans.
During the development of the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System, bears were one of the most common causes of property damage and work stoppage (Follmann and Hechtel 1990). Problems encountered with bears during the construction of this pipeline system were attributed to habituation caused by feeding and poorly operated waste management facilities (Follmann et al. 1980).
Innu participants at the black bear management workshop emphasized the importance of avoiding disturbance to bears (Black Bear Workshop Minutes 1997: 6) Appropriate food storage and waste management practices are one of the most effective means to prevent bear encounters. Innu elders have expressed concerns about bears consuming waste at exploration sites since Innu hunt and eat bear meat (Black Bear Workshop Minutes 1997: 2). To reduce the attraction of bears to food sources around VBNC facilities, domestic and office waste are collected in covered, bear-proof metal containers and incinerated on site.
VBNC employees at the exploration site have received bear awareness training as an important means of preventing encounters. All VBNC employees, contractors and site visitors will receive training during Project construction and operation upon arrival. Workers and visitors will be informed about bear habitat and behaviour in the Assessment Area, as well as appropriate avoidance and management techniques. Prevention of encounters with bears will be encouraged. Proper food and waste management practices will be strictly enforced. Harassment of bears in the Assessment Area will be prohibited.
Deterrent techniques can be used to reduce human/bear encounters. However, some techniques may be harmful to black bears on both a short and long term basis. For example, rubber bullets are known to cause wounding (Bromley 1985) and may cause increased bear aggressiveness towards humans (Harrington, F. pers. comm.). Other techniques, like bear bangers and screamers, which exploit the black bear's sense of hearing, are used to displace bears from areas of human occupation. Unfortunately, black bears are known to rapidly habituate to these noise makers (Bromley 1985). Bears can also be fed emetics (substances to induce nausea and sickness) such as lithium chloride but their effectiveness has not been documented (Follmann and Hechtel 1990; Follmann et al. 1980).
Electric fencing is the preferred deterrent technique. Electric fencing can prevent encounters and can prevent bears from accessing areas of food or solid waste (Bromley 1985; Follmann et al. 1980; Follmann and Hechtel 1990). Innu elders have expressed concerns regarding the safety of bears, humans and other small animals that could come into contact with an electric fence (Black Bear Workshop Minutes 1997: 2). The electric current proposed for use is considered to cause no permanent damage to bears (Bromley 1985; Follmann et al. 1980; Follmann and Hechtel 1990; J. Marley, pers. comm.), humans or other animals. The effectiveness of electric shocks makes tunnelling, climbing and fence destruction unlikely. LIA, Innu Nation, and wildlife officials will be consulted regarding the implementation and use of electric fencing.
Encounters between humans and black bears will be avoided whenever possible.
Bears that appear to pose a risk to human safety may be captured and relocated
with assistance of provincial Wildlife Division officials. Bears that continue
to pose a threat to human safety may be shot, under the supervision of
a wildlife officer, where possible.
Research on the response of bears to noise indicates that bears are likely to show a startle response when alarmed. With few natural enemies, the response of black bears to noise is likely to vary. They may be confused if approached by a potentially threatening object. Since bears are omnivores, they are considered to be less sensitive to high frequency sounds than carnivores, which depend on hearing to detect prey (RRCS 1994).
Noise modelling was undertaken by VBNC to predict noise levels resulting from Project activity within the VBNC Claim Block (Morrison Hershfield 1997). The average sound over a 24-hour period is known as the equivalent sound level (LEQ) and was projected for construction and operation phases.
The loudest noise from Project activities will be from blasting. Blasting will result in a 24-hour LEQ peak greater than 100 dB that will extend over bear habitat, including three known den sites. Experience at Cold Lake in Alberta, indicates that black bears are capable of habituating to either constant or periodic noise (Sopuck et al. 1979). It is anticipated that the association of a warning noise before each blast will reduce any startle effect for wildlife.
Projected 24-hour LEQ values will not exceed 50 dBA in the vicinity of other activity (excluding blasting) during construction or operation. For example, in the vicinity of the airstrip and approach corridors, 24-hour LEQ values is estimated at 35-45 dBA. During black bear field studies in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block, bears were observed to not react to approximately 50 percent of helicopter over-flights during the summer of 1996. For those that did react, the degree of reaction varied but was considered strongest (e.g., flight response) amongst females with cubs (JWEL 1997). Displacement or short-term avoidance of habitat will occur as a result of helicopter and aircraft traffic, but is not expected to result in any measurable effect on physiology or reproductive success.
Denning could be affected by noise associated with Project activities. During denning, bears are totally dependent on fat reserves and use the reduced energetic costs of torpor and thermal insulation of the den to survive. Disturbance (e.g., noise) during this phase of the life cycle could have much greater costs in terms of survival and reproduction than at other times of the year (Tietje and Ruff 1980; Linnell et al. 1996).
Disturbed bears are more likely to vacate den sites than undisturbed bears (Tietje and Ruff 1980; Goodrich and Berger 1994). Female bears have been observed to abandon dens more readily than males. Bears disturbed during the fall, through handling by researchers, were reported to have lost more weight than undisturbed bears, although no overwinter mortality or reduced reproduction was noted. Researchers handling bears during mid-winter have reported den abandonment and a subsequent energy disadvantage or cub abandonment (Goodrich and Berger 1994). Once bears have emerged from their dens, they are unlikely to abandon their cubs due to disturbance (DND 1994).
In the Landscape Region, black bears are known to den during November to April, a period which will overlap blasting activity. Mortality, particularly of young cubs, might occur if the den is disturbed during severe winter conditions or if the den collapses due to ground vibrations from blasting, at noise levels of 100-120 dB or higher (Follmann,E. and Banci, V. pers. comm.).
Blasting will occur during construction, start-up operations at the open pit, full operations at the open pit, and (later) during underground development and mining. Open pit blasting will occur from June to November; during underground development from March to November; and during underground mining, all year.
The known den locations, in relation to the 100 dB blasting contour and home ranges, are shown in Figure 17.3.
It is expected that bears will tend to avoid areas of loud noise (blasting,
airstrip and approach corridors) if it is perceived as harmful. Therefore,
as long as blasting is initiated before the denning period (as is the case
for all Project phases), bears will likely choose to create new dens or
inhabit existing den sites away from blasting noise. Known den sites will
be mapped and avoided by Project personnel whenever possible.
In the Landscape Region, black bears use a variety of habitats, with each habitat contributing something essential such as food, shelter or water for survival (JWEL 1997). For example, barren habitats provide more forage (berries and grasses) but less shelter (daybeds) than forested areas, while dwarf shrub forest cover at the interface of the Fraser River and Central Ranges Land Regions provide den sites (JWEL 1997). Altering any of these habitats could have consequences at a local scale. However, it is anticipated that less than 3 percent of the dwarf shrub forest (preferred denning habitat) in the Landscape Region will be disturbed by the Project (Chapter 14). In addition, approximately 0.5 percent of barrens habitat providing forage will be disturbed by the Project. Black bears are expected to avoid disturbed areas that do not provide forage or shelter. The use of natural vegetation for reclamation may reduce the total habitat altered or lost, and could result in temporary avoidance of some areas.
In other areas of Canada, habitat alteration associated with development
and natural events in the boreal forest have had minimal effects on black
bear distribution, habitat use and behaviour (Schwartz and Franzmann 1991;
Sopuck et al. 1979). These authors suggest that, although black bears prefer
deciduous forest and avoid extensive open areas, they may benefit from
forest clearings or forest fires if the altered habitats are located adjacent
to areas of forest cover and/or there is a subsequent increase in prey.
For modelling purposes, five areas of black bear habitat were modelled, representing watersheds on the site: Option 5 watershed, North Tailings Basin watershed, Edward's Cove (Anaktalak Bay), Reid Brook Valley, and Camp Pond watershed. It was assumed that black bear resides in these areas year-round and obtain all of their food and water from within these areas. Information on diet and weight of black bear was site-specific, based on the information obtained through baseline studies. Black bear was modelled with a mixed diet of vegetation and animals. The vegetation accounted for 70 percent of the annual diet, consisting primarily of bakeapples with some deciduous browse. Animal consumption provided the other 30 percent of the diet and consisted predominately of small mammals, with some larger prey such as caribou. The uptake and bioaccumulation of metals from dietary sources is based on ingestion transfer factors which determine the efficiency to which the metals are transferred from a food source to the bear. These ingestion transfer factors are based on established literature values that are available primarily for livestock species. For modelling of the black bear, ingestion transfer factors for other omnivores (i.e., pigs) were used (IAEA 1994).
Based on exposure, diet, and ingestion transfer, the bioaccumulation of metals in black bears was modelled over a period of 140 years. The model provided estimates of dose (mg/kg/day) for each of the metals modelled. The predicted dose concentrations were compared to lowest observable effect levels (LOEL) which are toxicological benchmark concentrations. Species-specific LOEL (benchmark doses) were calculated based on weight following established equations for wildlife (Sample et al. 1996). The LOEL represent the concentration at which some effect on the animal (e.g., weight loss) was observed. These values do not represent acute toxicological thresholds, which would be substantially higher. The predicted dose was compared to the benchmark dose (LOEL) to produce hazard quotients (HQ) for each of the metals modelled. The HQ represents the ratio of the predicted dose to the benchmark dose. An HQ equal to, or greater than, one indicates a predicted dose concentration equal to or greater than the LOEL. Therefore, an HQ of less than one is interpreted as representing a dose which is not expected to have an observable effect on black bear.
The results of the modelling provided HQ values which were well below one for all metals in each of the five locates that were modelled. HQ values decrease over time, with lowest values predicted during post-decommissioning The highest HQ values were predicted for nickel, copper and cobalt in Camp Pond and Edward's Cove watersheds. However, even in these locations, HQ values are one to three orders of magnitude (10 to 1,000 times) lower than the benchmark value. It should be noted that the results for Edward's Cove is an overestimate because bears do not, in fact, reside there full time. The metals modelled in the other watersheds are much lower still (three to seven orders of magnitude).
Therefore, the black bear is not expected to bioaccumulate metals to
a dose which would cause an adverse environmental effect.
Accidental events such as pipeline failure, dam failure or a contaminant
spill could result in habitat loss. However, bears use a variety of habitats
in the Landscape Region and could likely fulfill their habitat needs in
other areas. Exposure to contaminants from a pipeline failure or a spill
could result in some bioaccumulation. Any accumulation of containments
would be minimal, since bears would likely avoid the area during clean-up
activities.
The definitions for the rating of residual environmental effects significance are as follows:
A major (significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting the Landscape Region black bear population (Black Bear Assessment Area) in such a way as to cause a change in abundance and/or change in distribution beyond which natural recruitment (reproduction and immigration from unaffected areas) would not return that population, or any populations or species dependent on it, to its former level within several generations.
A moderate (significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting a portion of the Landscape Region black bear population (Black Bear Assessment Area) that results in a change in abundance and/or distribution over one or more generations of that portion of the population, or any populations or species dependent on it, but does not change the integrity of any population as a whole; it may be localised.
A minor (not significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting the Landscape Region black bear population (Black Bear Assessment Area) or a specific group of black bears in the population at a localised area and/or over a short period (one generation or less) but not affecting other trophic levels or the integrity of the population itself.
A negligible (not significant) residual environmental effect is one affecting the Landscape Region black bear population (Black Bear Assessment Area) or a specific group of black bears in the population at a localised area and/or over a short period (one generation or less) in such a way as to be similar to small random changes in the population due to natural irregularities, but having no measurable impact on the population as a whole.
The residual environmental effects, including cumulative effects, remaining
after mitigation, and including consideration of cumulative environmental
effects are presented in Table 17.2.
| Project Phase | Residual Environmental
Effect |
Significance | Likelihooda
|
Sustainable (Capacity) Use of Renewable Resourcesa |
| construction | human/bear encounters,
habitat alteration or loss |
minor
(not significant) |
n/a | n/a |
| operation | habitat alteration or loss,
noise and visual disturbance |
minor
(not significant) |
n/a | n/a |
| decommissioning | noise and visual disturbance, human/bear encounters | negligible
(not significant) |
n/a | n/a |
| post- decommissioning | human/bear encounters | negligible
(not significant) |
n/a | n/a |
| accidental events | habitat loss, bioaccumulation | minor
(not significant) |
n/a | n/a |
| a likelihood
and sustainable use of renewable resources are only defined for environmental
effects that are significant (moderate or major) (CEAA 1994: 84, 187).
* n/a = not applicable |
||||
The greatest challenge regarding black bears will involve reducing contact with humans, particularly around the accommodations facilities during April to November. With the installation of electric fencing, bear awareness training, and strict controls for food storage and waste management, and use of natural vegetation for reclamation, human and bear encounters should decline.
The estimated loss of preferred denning habitat (dwarf shrub forest)
and foraging habitat (barrens) is small and not expected to adversely affect
bear distribution and abundance. Since bears have the ability to tolerate
disturbance and use a variety of habitat types, the effect of habitat loss
will be measurable but will not affect the integrity of the population,
as environmental effects will be limited to a few individuals. A minor
(not significant) residual environmental effect is predicted during construction
(Table 17.2).
With the mitigation and Project design measures identified and implemented during operations, local avoidance of high use areas may be expected during April to November. During open pit operations, blasting will occur from June until November during the three-year start up period of operation and from March to November during full open pit production. Disturbances to bears resulting from blasting activities at the mine prior to the denning period should result in bears denning elsewhere. Human/black bear encounters should be infrequent by the time the mine is operational. However, some disturbance to adjacent black bear dens may be unavoidable, causing bears to leave their dens prematurely. Black bear are tolerant of human activity and it is anticipated that the routine occurrence of blasting during open pit mining will result in some bears relocating elsewhere to select a den site. Habitat providing potential den sites in the Assessment Area is abundant and not limited to areas affected by open pit blasting.
There are no health issues or implications on reproductive success for
black bears. A minor (not significant) residual environmental effect is
predicted during operation (Table 17.2).
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Personal Communications
Banci, V. Environmental Biologist, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Follmann, E. Professor of Biology, Institute of Arctic Biology, Fairbanks, Alaska.
Harrington, F. Professor of Psychology Mount Saint Vincent University, Associate Professor of Biology Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Marley, J. Owner Margo Supplies, authority on bear aversion techniques.
