Chapter 18 - Species of Special Conservation Status

18. Species of Special Conservation Status

The species of special conservation status selected for consideration in this assessment are harlequin duck, peregrine falcon, polar bear, and beluga whale. These species were chosen because they have low abundance and are protected under the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) and Canada's international commitments (e.g., International Agreement for the Conservation of Polar Bears) for their protection, and all of these species occur regularly in or near the VBNC Claim Block. Other species of special status, such as the wolverine and Atlantic walrus, are infrequently reported to occur in the Landscape Region (Brice-Bennett 1977:129; Williamson 1997:31 and Map 4). Neither of these species nor the Eskimo curlew (an endangered shorebird) are likely to occur in the Landscape Region.

18.1 Existing Environment

Species that are low in abundance require special consideration for their protection and to maintain biodiversity. COSEWIC has established a classification system to designate the vulnerability of endangered species (COSEWIC 1996):

extinct - no longer exists;

extirpated - no longer existing in the wild in Canada or a region of Canada, but occurring elsewhere;

endangered - facing imminent extirpation or extinction;

threatened - likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed; and

vulnerable - of special concern because of characteristics that make it particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events.

Harlequin Duck Participant in LIA study: "When I used to go hunting, different species of birds were getting scarcer, like the harlequin ducks, they were declining fast. I used to see them in all the bays in the 1970s to the 1980s." (Williamson 1997:36)

The harlequin duck is a relatively uncommon seaduck considered unique among North American waterfowl because of its discontinuous distribution and its habit of breeding along swiftly flowing streams (Bellrose 1976; Todd 1963; Dzinbal 1982; Williamson 1997: 36).

COSEWIC has designated the eastern North American population as endangered. The breeding distribution (Figure 18.1) of this population includes southern Baffin Island, Ungava Bay, northern Labrador, the Gaspé Peninsula, Hudson Bay, James Bay, and western Newfoundland (Montevecchi et al. 1995). Goudie (1989) estimated the former (during first European contact) size of this population at 5,000-10,000. Vickery (1988) examined the winter distribution of this population during the 1980s and estimated less than 1,000 known individuals within coastal Newfoundland, the Maritimes, and New England (Figure 18.1). Goudie (1989) suggests hunting as the dominant factor for the decline.

Figure 18.1 Distribution of Harlequin Ducks in Eastern North America

Recent surveys by the Canadian Wildlife Service within the breeding area of the eastern North American population (Montevecchi et al. 1995), the Department of National Defence (LFA 1992; JWEL 1992; JWEL 1994; JWEL 1995; JWEL 1996; JWEL 1997a), Hydro-Quebec (Morneau and Decarie 1993), and VBNC (JWEL 1997b) suggest that the current population is likely larger than that suggested by Vickery (1988). This is consistent with increasing trends in numbers at traditional wintering sites since the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Peregrine Falcon

"The area of the coast is home to numerous nesting sites for several bird species including, but not limited to, puffins, murres, razorbills, eider ducks and the endangered peregrine falcon and harlequin duck and includes a large bird sanctuary at the Gannet Islands." (Todd Russell, Labrador Metis Association, Panel Scoping Meeting in Happy Valley-Goose Bay, May 13, 1997.)

The peregrine falcon is a specialized predator feeding almost exclusively on living birds (Ratcliffe 1993). This species is well-known for its ability to dive for prey at speeds up to 290 km/h (Godfrey 1986). Raptors, such as the peregrine falcon, are at the top of the food chain (Ratcliffe 1993) and are a species likely to be sensitive to changes that may occur in the environment.

Peregrine falcon populations within North America suffered drastic declines in the 1950s and 1960s, attributed to the widespread use of the pesticide DDT (Cade et al. 1988). With restrictions on DDT use in the 1970s and recovery programs involving the release of captive-raised young, the downward trend in peregrine falcon populations has been largely reversed and recovery is occurring throughout much of its range, including Labrador (Cade et al. 1988; Godfrey 1986; Palmer 1988; Lemon and Brazil 1990). In particular, the tundrius subspecies of peregrine falcon, although rare, appears to be more widely and abundantly distributed throughout Arctic Canada (Figure 18.2) than had been previously thought (Burnett et al. 1989).

Figure 18.2 Distribution of Peregrine Falcon (anatum and tundrius subspecies)

Both subspecies of peregrine falcon breeding in the Region (anatum of southern Canada and tundrius of Arctic Canada) have been designated as species at risk by COSEWIC (1996). The anatum subspecies has an endangered status and the tundrius subspecies is designated as vulnerable.

Polar Bear

Polar bears are distinct among the bear family as they are chiefly carnivorous (preferring seals) and well-adapted to the marine environment (Messier et al. 1992). Although the polar bear shares a common ancestry with other bears, its thick coat, thick layer of fat and other unique characteristics are specially adapted to life in cold climates such as the Arctic and subarctic (Kolenosky 1987). The distribution of the polar bear is circumpolar, with several populations that are not genetically isolated (Stirling and Kiliaan 1980; Taylor and Lee 1995).

Polar bears are found on the Labrador coast during the spring and summer months (Stirling and Kiliaan 1980). Individuals are known to have travelled from northern Labrador to southeastern Baffin Island and northern Hudson Bay at other times of the year (Figure 18.3). Labrador is within the range of the Davis Strait population, which consists of approximately 1,200 individuals (Calvert, W. pers. comm). Of this population, 100-200 bears may occur intermittently along coastal Labrador and the Labrador Sea (Messier, F. pers. comm.).

Figure 18.3 Davis Strait Polar Bear Population Boundary

Participant in LIA study: "I've seen polar bear around Illusuattalialuk and Humby Island, but only in singles and not every year...I always see grumpus but seldom beluga." (Williamson 1997:31)

Polar bears have traditionally been hunted in Labrador for food and clothing, self-protection and as a sign of honour, although they have never been the main focus of harvesting activities. In post-European times, the polar bear has been valued for its hide and most recently, for sport hunting (Urquhart and Schweinsburg 1984). Subsequent harvesting increased the economic value of the polar bear to northern residents and necessitated a greater effort on the part of government and Aboriginal groups to responsibly manage the population (Urquhart and Schweinsburg 1984; Taylor and Lee 1995). The Newfoundland government has prohibited hunting since 1971, but allows LIA members to harvest four polar bears each year through a floating licensing system shared among communities. Polar bears were granted international conservation status through the signing of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears by Canada, Denmark, Norway, the United States, and the former Soviet Union in November of 1973. The polar bear is designated a vulnerable species by COSEWIC (1996).

Beluga Whale

The beluga whale has been classified into at least seven distinct populations for the purpose of management and conservation (Smith et al. 1990). Of these, two populations are more likely to occur in Northern Labrador: the Ungava Bay population and the southeast Baffin Island-Cumberland Sound population, both of which are classified as endangered (COSEWIC 1996).

Hudson Strait and Davis Strait have been identified by McLaren and Davis (1982) as important wintering habitat for belugas. In March 1981, there were 10,000-11,000 belugas in the Hudson Strait-Ungava Bay-southwest Davis Strait-north Labrador Sea region. This group probably included four separate populations, but the vast majority of these whales were from the western Hudson Bay population (McLaren and Davis 1982).

Historic records indicate that belugas occur sporadically along the coast of northern Labrador in spring from Cape Chidley to Makkovik (Boles 1980). These accounts suggest that belugas have always been scarce along the Labrador coast and have been in decline since the turn of the century.

Beluga whales are hunted throughout the Arctic. While there is no directed effort in Labrador, belugas are hunted when the opportunity arises (i.e., when an individual enters the area). Few belugas have been taken from within the Landscape Region in recent years.

18.1.1 Environmental Assessment Boundaries

Harlequin Duck

Capitalized terms used (such as Landscape Region and VBNC Claim Block) may be defined in other chapters. Some terms and phrases used may have different definitions in other chapters depending upon the context in which they are used, for example, the Assessment Area.

Project activities (primarily modification of freshwater habitat) will take place within the habitat which is occupied from April to November by harlequin duck. Although studies have focused on harlequin duck in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block and shipping route, predictions of environmental effects will be made for the eastern North American population of the harlequin duck; its distribution is the Harlequin Duck Assessment Area (Figure 18.1).

Peregrine Falcon

Project activities will take place within habitat used by the eastern population of peregrine falcon. This population exhibits a widespread distribution pattern, with only a portion occuring within the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block and only between April and October. Due to the large geographical range of individual birds (i.e., northern Canada to wintering areas in Central and South America), this species is subject to a great number of influences. Although studies have focused on peregrine falcon in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block and shipping route, environmental effects predictions will be made for the Labrador population of peregrine falcon; this is the Peregrine Falcon Assessment Area.

Polar Bear

Project activities will take place within the southeastern extremity of the range of the Davis Strait polar bear population. This species exhibits a widespread distribution pattern, with only a small proportion of the population occurring at any one time near the VBNC Claim Block between March and August. Although observations were recorded for polar bears (during other field programs) occurring in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block and shipping route, predictions of environmental effects will be made on the Davis Strait population; this is the Polar Bear Assessment Area (Figure 18.3).

Beluga Whale

Project activities (primarily shipping) will take place within habitat used by beluga whales. Beluga from Ungava Bay or the southeast Baffin Bay/Cumberland Sound populations may occur in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block and shipping route year-round on an irregular basis. Data gathered by VBNC focused on beluga whales occurring in the vicinity of the VBNC Claim Block and shipping route. Predictions of environmental effects will be made on the basis of the Ungava Bay and southeast Baffin Bay/Cumberland Sound populations; this is the Beluga Whale Assessment Area.

18.1.1.1 Administrative Boundaries

The federal and provincial governments are responsible for the management of the eastern population of harlequin duck, the eastern population of peregrine falcon, and polar bears. Fisheries and Oceans Canada has responsibility for the management of beluga whales in Canada. Current legislation and agreements regarding harlequin duck and peregrine falcon include the Migratory Birds Convention Act and the North American Waterfowl Management Plan.

The distribution of polar bears in Canada is divided into 12 populations; Labrador is included with the Davis Strait population (Taylor and Lee 1995). A limited harvest within this zone is administered by the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador and coordinated with LIA. Current legislation and agreements regarding polar bears include the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears.

18.1.1.2 Technical Boundaries

The current estimate of the eastern harlequin duck population is based upon observations of this species on wintering areas throughout Atlantic Canada and the New England states. Limited information from Labrador was available for the preparation of this estimate. The intensive breeding pair and brood survey program initiated by VBNC (JWEL 1997b) required the modification of techniques developed elsewhere to allow for the local conditions at Voisey's Bay.

Labrador is an area of overlapping range between the two subspecies of peregrine falcon, often resulting in possible interbreeding and difficulties in identifying either tundrus or anatum individuals. For the purposes of this assessment, separate subspecies have not been examined but, rather, combined as the eastern population within the Landscape Region.

Accurate population estimates and information on local habitat use for polar bears are often difficult to determine due to the logistical constraints of studying an animal at low density over a large and remote area (Derocher and Stirling 1995). Aerial surveys are often inappropriate for this species as the technique often underestimates the population (Stirling and Øritsland 1995). The intermittent use of the Landscape Region by polar bears was not conducive for telemetry or census techniques. Information on distribution and movements were based on incidental observations and external sources.

Density and abundance of beluga whales in the Region are difficult to estimate due to the sporadic and infrequent occurrence of beluga whale along the coast of Labrador.

18.1.2 Methods

Relevant information regarding harlequin ducks in the VBNC Claim Block and Landscape Region is based on data compliled from the following sources:

the Canadian Wildlife Service (Goudie et al. 1994);

the Department of National Defence (JWEL 1997a);

nine aerial surveys for breeding pairs during May-June 1995-1997 in the VBNC Claim Block;

three aerial and ground brood surveys during July-August 1996 in selected rivers in the VBNC Claim Block (JWEL 1997b);

three aerial surveys in the bays adjacent to the VBNC Claim Block during 1995 and 1996; and

various sources of Aboriginal knowledge.

Relevant information regarding peregrine falcon in the VBNC Claim Block and Landscape Region is based upon observations during dedicated field surveys of potential habitat during June-July 1995-1997 and Aboriginal knowledge. Raptor surveys conducted from 1987 (Goudie et al. 1994; LFA 1992; JWEL 1992; JWEL 1994; JWEL 1995; JWEL 1996; JWEL 1997a) have also been used to supplement the database.

Incidental observations of polar bear were gathered during several surveys during 1995-1996 to record the abundance and distribution of wildlife species within the coastal and Saglek/Hopedale Land Regions (e.g, seals, caribou, and seabirds). Aboriginal knowledge and relevent literature from mark/recapture, telemetry (Taylor and Lee 1995; Stirling and Kilaan 1980) and dedicated aerial surveys (Crête et al. 1991) of the Davis Strait population were also consulted.

Relevant information regarding beluga whale was compiled from Aboriginal knowledge, relevant literature, and incidental observations recorded during marine surveys (June-November 1996).

18.1.3 Existing Conditions

18.1.3.1 Harlequin Duck

Within the Landscape Region, harlequin ducks occupy rivers and brooks primarily within the Fraser River Land Region (defined in Chapter 2) as breeding habitat, using the saltwater of the Coastal Region for staging in the spring and fall (Williamson 1997: 36; JWEL 1996; Brice-Bennett 1977: 120). Harlequin ducks arrive in the vicinity of Voisey's Bay by the first week of May and leave in late fall (JWEL 1997b).

Participant in LIA study: "Only early in the spring we'd see them [harlequins] where we had open water...around the rapids ... 6 sometimes 8 sometimes only 4...up in the bays they'd be around throughout the summer...off the gooseland...I haven't noticed any big change [in numbers], not in this area." (Williamson 1997:36)

Short coastal streams in particular are believed to contribute substantially to the annual production of harlequin duck (Dzinbal 1982). Breeding pairs (older than 2 years) of harlequin duck have been recorded in the Landscape Region as early as May 8, when most of the rivers and bays are still covered with ice (JWEL 1997b). During May, this species is found in areas of open salt water at estuaries (e.g., Voisey's Bay, Anaktalak Bay and Kangeklualuk Bay) and in freshwater at rapids on the lower reaches of rivers (e.g., Ikadlivik River, Reid Brook, Little Reid Brook, Kogluktukoluk Brook, Anaktalik Brook) (Williamson 1997). During the remainder of the month, breeding pairs appear to be highly mobile, moving upstream as spring ice break-up progresses. Banding studies in Jasper, Alberta have confirmed that breeding pairs continually arrive and depart from a particular stretch of river during the spring (Bighorn Environmental Design Ltd. 1996).

Male harlequin ducks tend to be more abundant than females in the breeding range (Bengtson 1972) and pairs are occasionally observed with an intruder male (Kuchel 1977). Intruder males tend to be highly mobile. Pairs are non-territorial and are engaged in courtship activities throughout May (Kuchel 1977; Dzinbal 1982). As with most diving ducks, this species has a high degree of site fidelity, with individuals returning to the same area (often within 100 m) (Bengtson 1972) and occupying breeding habitat on the same sections of river each year (JWEL 1997a).

Numbers of breeding pairs increase until late May and are greater on shorter, smaller streams (Cassirer and Groves 1990). Approximately 40 breeding pairs (80 individuals) were estimated to have occupied or passed through the VBNC Claim Block in 1996. This included one pair per 1.4 km along 7 km of Kogluktukoluk Brook, one pair per 2.0 km along 6 km of the brook flowing out of the proposed North Tailings Basin, one pair per 2.9 km along 62 km of Ikadlivik Brook, one pair per 3.0 km along 9 km of Lower Reid Brook below the stream flowing out of Camp Pond, and one pair per 6.0 km along 12 km of Reid Pond. Individual birds were rarely encountered during this time and breeding pairs represented 88 percent of the ducks observed (JWEL 1997b). Numbers of breeding pairs in 1997 were greatest on June 2-5, with 32 pairs observed, the same as on May 30, 1996. Based on the results of harlequin duck surveys of sections or entire lengths of river (maximum values) from 1991-1997 (no correction factors), an estimate for the Landscape Region is at least 200 adult birds.

With the onset of incubation by mid-June, male harlequin ducks leave the breeding areas and are believed to fly to the Labrador coast and north to moult. The early departure of males from the breeding grounds may be regarded as an adaptation to the limited food resource on the river (Bengtson 1972). In the Landscape Region, as elsewhere, it is noted that males leave the breeding area at the end of June and beginning of July when simuliid larvae and pupae are relatively few in number (JWEL 1997d). The departure of males for the coast also precludes further breeding or nesting should nest failure occur.

Nest sites are on the ground (preferably islets and islands), usually near fast streams, and often in a clump of bushes or in recesses in rocks (Bengtson 1972; Godfrey 1986). Broods hatch after 27-29 days incubation (Bengtson 1972) in mid- to late-July (Bengtson and Ulfstrand 1971). The number of paired females that breed can vary annually: greater than 70 percent in Iceland (Bengston and Ulfstrand 1971), 29 percent in Idaho (Cassirer and Groves 1990), and 25 percent within the VBNC Claim Block and vicinity in 1996.

Of the 40 estimated breeding pairs observed during 1996, only 10 broods were located during repeated and intensive aerial and ground surveys (JWEL 1997b). Similarly, in 1997 only five broods were detected, while at least 32 breeding pairs were located in June. The high proportion of females not breeding in some years, as observed in Iceland (Gardarsson and Einarsson 1991), may be due to fluctuating levels of critical food resources, such as black fly or other aquatic insect larvae (Bengtson 1972; Montevecchi et al. 1995). An additional factor affecting breeding success is that, as noted above, not all pairs attempt to breed.

Young broods in Idaho have been more often observed in quieter water, moving into areas of rapids at several weeks of age (Cassirer and Groves 1990). Similarly, in the Landscape Region, broods occur in stream riffles or meanders during late July. Their use of this habitat appears to vary if the water level drops dramatically in summer (JWEL 1997b). Soon after hatch, broods occur in areas adjacent to earlier breeding pair habitat, such as the outlets of lakes, where benthic invertebrates are abundant.

Simuliids (black flies) constitute the bulk of adult harlequin duck diet. Other food items, such as chironomids, Trichoptera, Gastropoda, Oligochaeta, Lymnaea spp., Nostoc spp. (algae), and traces of green plant tissues, occurred in the diet of adults in small quantities. Ducklings consume a greater proportion of insects and seeds at the surface of the water than adults (Bengtson and Ulfstrand 1971; Bengtson 1972). Harlequin ducks feed predominantly on marine invertebrates in intertidal deltas of estuaries in the marine environment (Dzinbal 1982) when staging or wintering along the Atlantic Coast (Figure 18.1).

Streams that had otherwise unattractive habitat (e.g., lacking islets and suitable sites for cover) for broods or adults in Iceland were found to be common feeding areas due to the abundance of benthic invertebrates (Bengtson and Ulfstrand 1971; Bengtson 1972).

Kogluktukolouk Brook, which is slow and meandering, was an important area for breeding pairs during May. However, it lacks islets or other nesting cover and was apparently not used as nesting or early brood rearing habitat, although it became important late in the summer, presumably as a feeding area (JWEL 1997b). Breeding pairs were observed to be associated with midstream islands and braided river channels during 1996-97 surveys within the VBNC Claim Block. Habitat characteristics such as extensive sandy, unstable substrates, highly variable flow rates, or small stream size are correlated with low benthos populations.

Harlequin ducks show a strong tendency to leave short rivers and streams (presumably less rich in benthic life) and move downstream to river deltas (Bengtson 1972). During 1996, harlequin duck moved downstream to deeper water or estuarine salt water areas when the river levels declined dramatically. Otherwise, broods appear to remain in natal areas until they are able to fly.

Participant in LIA study: "Seems to me they're [harlequins] always the same amount. You might see 4 or 6 like that in the brook and on rocks. Normally I just leave them alone. Just like they've always been scarce." (Williamson 1997:36)

In 1996, two broods located in the vicinity of the North Tailings Basin and downstream areas in late July were not observed during August. Three broods located on the upper reaches of Ikadlivik Brook were not observed in August. One brood was discovered in Voisey's Bay and at least one of three broods on Kogluktukoluk Brook could have originated from the Ikadlivik Brook.

Conversely, broods remained stationary on natal areas throughout the summer in areas of abundant water and stable substrate (e.g., rock ledge) on the Adlatok River and at Zoar (JWEL 1997b). Water levels remained high throughout the summer in 1997 and reduced the effectiveness of intensive ground surveys for broods. Nevertheless, five broods were identified in coastal and inland habitat (JWEL 1997a).

Broods unattended by females were encountered in the Landscape Region (JWEL 1997b). Similar observations have been reported elsewhere, where up to 40 percent of broods were abandoned in Idaho (Cassirer and Groves 1990). However, in Iceland, females typically remain upstream with the brood until ducklings are full-grown in mid-September (Bengtson 1972).

Potential predators on harlequin ducks in the Landscape Region include gyrfalcon, raven, great black-backed gull, and mink (Bengtson 1972). The low production of harlequin duck broods in the VBNC Claim Block area during 1996 and 1997 (approximately 25 percent) may have been a secondary result of the relative paucity of small mammals (JWEL 1997e). Mink, marten, and other predators may have changed their predation from small mammals to other food sources, such as harlequin duck eggs and ducklings. In Gaspé, Quebec in 1996, raptors were responsible for mortality in two of six female harlequin ducks (Brodeur, S. pers. comm.). In contrast, Bengtson (1972) reported that predation on ducklings in Iceland was not substantial.

To date, exploration activities conducted within the VBNC Claim Block have not physically disturbed or altered potential habitat for harlequin duck. Noise and human presence have occurred at areas such as the Anaktalak Bay Exploration Camp. Nevertheless, one to three breeding pairs (no broods) have been observed near the camp on several occasions during 1996-1997.

18.1.3.2 Peregrine Falcon

"Although increasingly rare, peregrine falcons are still seen in the Nain District." (Williamson 1997:36)

Approximately 45 peregrine falcon nesting territories have been identified in Labrador. About 15 of these are known to occur within the Landscape Region (JWEL 1997a). Williamson (1997; Map 4) reported three peregrine falcon nests between Nain and Dog Island. There are presently no known peregrine falcon territories within the VBNC Claim Block, although suitable nesting and hunting habitat has been identified. These areas may become occupied at some point in the future. Peregrine falcon nesting sites have been identified along the shipping route. To date, mineral exploration activities have occurred predominantly away from areas of potential habitat and no interaction of consequence is believed to have occurred.

Peregrine falcon populations appear to be increasing throughout their range in the Assessment Area; however, increased survey efforts may account for the apparently greater numbers. The number of active nests observed per 100 km of survey effort in 1995 was greater than in 1993 and 1994 (0.94, compared to 0.24 and 0.59, respectively) (JWEL 1996). Studies completed in Ungava Bay, Quebec from 1980-1985 concluded that local peregrine falcons are healthy and productive. This is based on the number of young per successful pair and the reasonably stable percentage occupancy of the 12 territories visited in each of four years (Bird and Weaver 1988).

Peregrine falcon are known to nest throughout the Saglek/Hopedale Land Region of the coast and inland along the cliffs of the Fraser River Land Region (JWEL 1996; 1997a). Nest sites often occur within the upper one-third of prominent cliff faces along steep river valleys (Lemon and Brazil 1990; JWEL 1996) which tend to have a southern exposure (Court et al. 1988; Goudie et al. 1994). Cliff ledge characteristics have been observed to be important. Nesting sites found in Labrador are usually a scrape on a grass ledge, often with some protective overhang (JWEL 1996). Court et al. (1988) reviewed several theories explaining the selection of nest sites, including protection from wind and storms, thermal benefits, and the presence of overhanging rock, and concluded that nest site availability and territorial behaviour were likely the major determining factors.

The peregrine falcon arrives on its breeding ground between the last week in April and the first week in May, which corresponds to the arrival of important prey species (Snow 1972). Usually, peregrine falcons lay their eggs on bare ground (Godfrey 1986; JWEL 1996), although the use of stick nests of raven and other raptor species has occasionally been observed in the Northwest Territories (Court et al. 1988; Fleck 1981) and in the Landscape Region (JWEL 1995). The species has a range in clutch size from three to five (Godfrey 1986), an average incubation period of 34 days, and an average nestling period of 46 days (Palmer 1988). After fledging, the young remain dependent on the adults for an extended period of time to learn hunting skills (Palmer 1988).

Breeding pairs in Labrador have been observed to return to a single territory to breed over a period of many years, although a territory may possess more than one nest site for any one pair (JWEL 1996). This behaviour is typical of peregrine falcon, as they are known to have a strong affinity to certain nest sites and successful pairs may use the same cliff face or nesting ledge for over 50 years (Fleck 1981). A peregrine falcon nesting territory refers to the area surrounding the nest site which is actively defended (Palmer 1988). This is distinguished from the much larger hunting range, which varies in size depending on availablility of prey (Palmer 1988; Roseneau et al. 1981), but can extend up to 103 km², approximately 10,000 ha (Ratcliffe 1993).

Peregrine falcons feed almost exclusively on passerine birds, waterfowl, and shorebirds (Snow 1972). The 1995 and 1996 surveys highlighted the importance of black guillemot in the diet of peregrine falcons nesting in coastal Labrador (JWEL 1997b). Nest sites are often associated with colonies of this seabird. Of the predators listed for this species worldwide (Cade et al. 1988), great horned owl, golden eagle, and marten exist in the Landscape Region. Several diseases and parasites (often preceded by some form of stress such as a food shortage) are known for captive peregrines (Remple 1988: 827).

18.1.3.3 Polar Bears

Polar bears use the ice and coastal area of northern Labrador extensively (Messier, F. pers. comm.; Williamson 1997: 69), occasionally drifting southward on ice floes during spring and early summer to southern Labrador and the Island of Newfoundland (Banfield 1974). Along the coast, the greatest number occurs during March and April when the sea ice is heaviest (Stirling and Kiliaan 1980). Polar bears concentrate at the interface between the coastal fast ice and the drifting pack ice, particularly around the mouths of bays. Distribution and density of this species along the northern Labrador coast fluctuate from year to year depending on size of the ice flow, extent of ice coverage (Kolenosky 1987), hunting pressure, and the abundance and accessibility of seals (Urquhart and Schweinsburg 1984). As the ice begins to break up, individuals usually come ashore and begin making their way north along the coast, occasionally travelling 120 km inland.

The current estimate for the Davis Strait population is 1,200 animals and the population appears to be stable (Calvert, W. pers. comm.) or possibly increasing (Harrington 1994). This represents a positive trend as compared to the 1970s, when numbers of polar bears in Labrador decreased from historical levels, possibly due to overhunting (Stirling and Kiliaan 1980; Smith et al. 1975). The productivity of polar bears in Zone DS (formerly known as Zone B) is low compared to that of the Western or High Arctic and the productivity of polar bears in northern Labrador is particularly low (Stirling and Kiliaan 1980). A recent study by the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) and LIA, in which 48 polar bears were captured and tagged in April of 1991, 1992 and 1993, confirmed that the Labrador population is part of the southeast Baffin Island population (Harrington 1994).

"I never killed a polar bear, water bear, not me, but I've seen lots of �um. There's one old place down the strand where they used to come around, and there's a chance one comes around even these times." (Anthony Mugford, Them Days Vol 8, No. 1, Sept 1982:47)

Incidental sightings (usually less than six) of this species may be expected annually within the Saglek/Hopedale and Coastal Regions of the Assessment Area. In the summer of 1995, at least eight polar bears, including a female with two cubs, were observed along the entire Labrador coast (Goodyear, G. pers. comm.). The following were observed within the Landscape Region from early May to early August of 1996: a female with two cubs in early May, one large male on Negro Islands in late July, and five adults near Castle Island in August. During the same week, two polar bears were reported in Utshimassits and two or three animals were observed near Hopedale. Polar bears have also been occasionally observed in the vicinity of Illusuattalialuk Island and Humbys Island (Williamson 1997: 31).

Information gathered from Inuit hunters suggests that polar bears den in northern Labrador, although the timing and numbers were uncertain (Brice-Bennett 1977). Stirling and Kiliaan (1980) concluded that although suitable maternity denning habitat is abundant in northern Labrador, little denning, if any, occurs there. More recently, there have been two reports of maternity dens (Harrington 1994) at a location east of Paul Island. Williamson (1997: Map 4) indicated the presence of two polar bear dens, one north of South Aulatsivik Island and another east of Ford's Harbour. An observation of an adult female with young cubs north of the Landscape Region area near Killinek during 1995 VBNC studies suggests the location of a nearby den.

Research has confirmed that polar bears exhibit a high degree of site fidelity during seasonal movements over large geographic areas (Stirling and Øritsland 1995), even against rapid ice drift (Born et al. 1997). Their ability to follow the same route during these movements (Kolenosky and Prevett 1983) indicates a well-developed navigational sense (Ramsay and Andriashek 1986). Seasonal habitat requirements vary according to sex and reproductive status of individuals (Urquhart and Schweinsburg 1984).

Polar bears consume mostly fat and meat from ringed seal and to a lesser degree, from bearded seal (Stirling and Øritsland 1995). Other species such as new-born harbour seal and young walrus are consumed opportunistically (Banfield 1974). In the summer, polar bears occassionally feed on the eggs and young of waterfowl (e.g., common eider) and cliff-dwelling sea birds (e.g., Atlantic puffin) (JWEL 1997b), as well as shoreline carrion, fish, shellfish, and berries (Derocher et al. 1993).

To date, polar bears have been observed to use the Landscape Region for feeding during movements (north and south) along the coastal islands and headlands of the Saglek/Hopedale Land Region. Polar bears in the Landscape Region from March to August would likely feed on ringed seals and bearded seals occurring along the edges of the fast ice. During the break-up and ice-free period, polar bears are forced on-shore to the coastal islands and headlands of Labrador.

Natural mortality of this species may be caused by starvation, predation by large adult male polar bear, and accidents (Kolenosky 1987: 477). Polar bears have few predators apart from humans (Urquhart and Schweinsburg 1984: 11).

Interactions between polar bears and VBNC mineral exploration activities since 1995 have been limited to occasional sightings of bears on offshore coastal bluffs and islands.

18.1.3.4 Beluga Whale

The belugas found along the coast of Labrador are thought to originate from the Ungava Bay and Southeast Baffin/Cumberland Sound populations. During the winter, they occur singly or in small groups. Preferred habitat for belugas is the loose pack ice where open water is always available. In the Labrador Sea, Davis Strait, and off Greenland, belugas were seen four to six times more frequently in 26-75 percent ice cover than in dense ice cover. However, no whales were observed in open water (McLaren and Davis 1982). Belugas have adapted to cope with ice cover by using their long fibrous dorsal ridge to break through several inches of ice to create a breathing hole (Béland 1996.

Belugas are found in shallow Arctic and subarctic waters, and are also known to occur in rivers and estuaries within the Landscape Region (Brice-Bennett 1977). Several incidental sightings of beluga were recorded during the ice-free season of 1996, but relative abundance could not be calculated due to the lack of sightings.

In early spring, large numbers converge at the ice edge for migration to summer breeding and feeding grounds throughout the Arctic. Belugas generally feed along the bottom in shallow water, diving up to 40 m to find squid, crabs, shrimp, clams, and fish (Lien 1985). In the North Atlantic, the main prey species are capelin and sandlance (Theodor 1969).

Participant in LIA study: "Belugas seem to be coming in the bays more often now." (Williamson 1997:31)

Sightings of belugas in Labrador are relatively common north of Nain or near the outer islands (Brice-Bennett 1977). Large groups have been seen in polynynas (areas of open water surrounded by ice) off Cape White Hankerchief and Eclipse Channel in Labrador in June (Boles et al. 1980). In June or July, belugas are reported to whelp at the heads of bays and feed on Arctic charr during the summer (Brice-Bennett 1977). There were six sightings during 1996 VBNC studies at Voisey's Bay and Anaktalak Bay (JWEL 1997c). Beluga were also reported by Williamson (1997: Map 4) to occur in Voisey's Bay and in Anaktalak Bay west of Edward's Cove. There have been several verbal reports from Nain of belugas observed between the fast ice and the sea ice in March (Sergeant and Brodie 1975). Also, in March, near Makkovik, there were reports of belugas just beyond the fast ice. A lactating female beluga was found dead in September, near Makkovik (Boles et al. 1980).

Historic records of the southeast Baffin Island/Cumberland Sound beluga population suggest a decline along the Labrador coast since the early 1900s (Boles et al. 1980; Brodie 1971). Further evidence of this trend was reported in a study by Richard and Orr (1990), which concluded that this population consisted of less than 500 individuals. The authors speculated that the population would continue to decline, since the annual catch from this population exceeds the estimated replacement rate (Richard and Orr 1986). The depletion of the Ungava Bay population appears to have taken place in the 1800s and 1900s (Finley et al. 1982).

18.1.4 Likely Future Conditions

18.1.4.1 Harlequin Duck

No complete census exists for this population. Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether the encouraging results (i.e., population is recovering) of recent surveys (JWEL 1997a; 1997b) are due to the closed hunting season or to the fact that certain areas of the breeding range are being either surveyed for the first time or surveyed more thoroughly. Ongoing research will likely continue to identify additional breeding pairs and a revised population estimate may be likely. In the absence of the Project, population growth of harlequin duck that occupy the VBNC Claim Block, within the expected life of the Project, is likely to be stable (or possibly increase) if hunting continues to be prevented and other factors remain the same. The slight increase in mean sea level over the life of the Project (due to future predicted climatic change) may affect some nesting habitat in low-lying areas.

18.1.4.2 Peregrine Falcon

In recent years, downward trends in peregrine falcon populations have been largely reversed and recovery is occurring throughout much of its range, including Labrador (Cade et al. 1988; Godfrey 1986; Palmer 1988; White et al. 1990; Lemon and Brazil 1990). Studies completed in Ungava Bay, Quebec from 1980-1985 concluded that peregrine falcons in this region are considered healthy and productive (Bird and Weaver 1988). Predicted climatic changes are not expected to influence peregrine falcon over the life of the Project. In the absence of the Project, there will be no likely changes in the status of peregrine falcon in the VBNC Claim Block or the Assessment Area.

18.1.4.3 Polar Bear

Polar bears have a low reproductive rate and a population will take several years to recover from natural or artificially-induced declines (Kolenosky 1987; Derocher and Stirling 1995). As indicated above, the distribution and density of polar bears in the Assessment Area is influenced annually by the size of the ice flow and extent of ice coverage (Kolenosky 1987). Vibe (1967) has suggested that climatic changes over several decades has accounted for the recent historical abundance of polar bears. Projections for increased sea level and slight increase in temperature over the life of the Project may result in greater release of ice and hence, a southward extension of the species' range. Polar bears that temporarily occupy the Assessment Area, within the expected lifespan of the Project, and in the absence of Project activities, are expected to remain at current population levels or possibly increase. This assumes a low level of hunting and continued protective measures through international management agreements.

18.1.4.4 Beluga Whale

The southeast Baffin Island/Cumberland Sound beluga population that occupies the waters of the Assessment Area, within the expected lifespan of the Project, and in the absence of Project activities, is likely to remain at current levels or continue to decline. This assumes that hunting pressure on the population is maintained at current levels. Predicted climatic changes over the life of the Project are not expected to influence belugas in the Assessment Area.