The relationship and dynamics that exist among the animals, habitat, and people in the Landscape Region can be understood through the principles of ecology (the study of interactions between organisms and their environment). The basic functional unit of ecology is the ecosystem (Hickman et al. 1979: 946). Ecosystems include both the living (i.e., plants, animals, and miroorganisms) and non-living (e.g., land and water) components of the environment. An ecosystem is made up of communities, which are species that share the same environment and have a distinctive unity, such as the plants and animals found in a particular type of tundra, forest, or wetlands. Communities, in turn, are composed of a number of populations. A population is an interbreeding group of organisms of the same species. The lowest level of organization within an ecosystem is the individual organism.
"Ecologists define them [landscapes] as ecosystem mosaics - heterogeneous land areas composed of clusters of interacting ecosystems that are repeated in similar form." (Hammond and Innes 1997: 3)
To understand the complex interactions that occur within and between
ecosystems, it is important to consider the elements of time and distance
(i.e. the dynamics and size of the ecosystem). For example, the time scale
for understanding the behaviour of a particular species' behaviour may
be only a few days (e.g., when caribou move west from coastal areas towards
calving areas on the plateau), an entire year (e.g., migrating species)
or hundreds to thousands of years (e.g., Innu and Inuit cultural ties to
the land and animals, and biological evolution). Likewise, in some cases,
it is necessary to understand the movements of animals on continental scales
of distance (e.g., shorebirds migrating from Labrador to South America).
For other purposes, it may be sufficient to understand the ecosystem of
an isolated pond or lake. As there are numerous ecosystems occurring within
Labrador and the Landscape Region, and movement occurs among and within
these ecosystems, it is necessary to consider these interactions at a larger
scale. Landscape ecology, discussed in Section 2.3.2, considers the interactions
and relationships among people, climate, land, water, ice, vegetation,
and animals across a large geographical area.
Plants are the primary producers in an ecosystem. They provide energy to herbivorous animals, which are, in turn, consumed by carnivores. Thus, the energy of the sun is captured by plants, and through feeding relationships, transferred to higher trophic levels in the food web. The productivity of the primary producers limits the size of animal populations in any ecosystem. Animal species at or near the top of the food web have populations that are smaller in biomass and numbers than those of species on which they feed.
"Once you could only fit three or four caribou on a Kamutik (sled), now you can stack seven or eight on a Kamutik, even without skinning and butchering them" (Williamson 1997:26).
These relationships can be illustrated by the George River Caribou Herd, which is closely tied to vegetation structure and productivity and the seasonal availability of food biomass. Since the turn of the century, the herd has been increasing in numbers (Messier et al. 1988; Bergerud 1994). Recently however, Inuit of northern Labrador, who hunt this herd, have observed that caribou numbers are declining, and that individuals are smaller than they were 30 years ago and appear to carry more diseases and parasites (Williamson 1997). Many people believe the herd has reached a point at which there is no longer enough food to maintain a healthy population (Williamson 1997). Thus, the productivity of the primary producers (i.e., lichens and other foods of caribou) limits the size of animal populations higher in the food web (i.e., the caribou herd). Historical information suggests that these longer term changes in the caribou population may be part of a re-occurring cycle.
While the survival of many animal species is dependent on vegetation, many plant species are influenced by foraging herbivores, or are dependent on birds and mammals for seed dispersal. Some plants respond to mammal and insect foraging by developing defensive chemicals that reduce their palatability or digestibility. Insects play an important role in pollinating plants, while invertebrate and microbial species create the soil conditions which allow plant life to grow. In Labrador, humans also influence vegetation through the harvest of trees, berry crops, and medicinal plants.
Herbivores, such as caribou, are not only linked to lower trophic levels, but also support a number of higher-level predators, particularly wolves, black bears, and humans. In Labrador, the links between predators and prey is demonstrated by the observation that wolf numbers increased following an increase in the George River Caribou Herd population (Parker and Luttich 1986; Williamson 1997). Similarly, the hunting patterns of Aboriginal peoples have also been greatly affected by past increases of the herd, and now its potential decline. As the herd increased, and its range expanded to include the coastal zone, the need for hunters to travel further inland was eliminated. If caribou become more scarce on the coast in winter, Inuit will have to return to their inland hunting areas (Williamson 1997).
This pattern of interaction also occurs at smaller scales. For example, small herbivores such as Arctic hare, beaver, northern bog-lemming, porcupine, red-backed vole, red squirrel, rock vole, and snowshoe hare are all dependent on particular aspects of vegetation structure and availability. In turn, their predators such as ermine, lynx, marten, mink, and red fox are dependent on these herbivores for prey. One well-known example of interdependency is that of the snowshoe hare and lynx (Keith et al. 1984). Studies have shown that cyclic changes in the snowshoe hare population are influenced by a combination of vegetation change and predation. Changes in lynx population (which prey on snowshoe hares) closely track these changes. Inuit have observed a similar interdependency between snowy owl and its prey of mice and lemmings (Williamson 1997).
The complexity of the connections within terrestrial ecosystems is further illustrated by the existence of omnivores that may be predator or prey, herbivore or carnivore. For example, red squirrels will eat practically any animals they can catch, including deer mice, voles, young hares, and birds (Obbard 1987). Species such as red fox and marten supplement a mostly carnivorous diet with seasonally available berries (Voigt 1987; Strickland and Douglas 1987). Black bears depend on vegetation (such as berries and grasses) in their diet, but will also feed on caribou, fish, small mammals, and insects. In turn, black bears are hunted by Aboriginal peoples (Black Bear Management Workshop 1997).
Bioaccumulation refers to contaminants that accumulate in increasing concentrations in organisms higher up the food chain.
Species at the top of the food web may be particularly sensitive to changes in the environment. For example, populations of peregrine falcons in North America suffered drastic declines in the 1950s and 1960s, attributed to the widespread use of the pesticide DDT (Cade et al. 1988). The chemical bioaccumulated in these birds, causing egg shells to thin to the point that eggs broke under the weight of the incubating adult. With restrictions on DDT use in the 1970s, and recovery programs involving the release of captive-raised young, downward trends in peregrine falcon populations have been largely reversed and recovery is occurring throughout much of its range (Godfrey 1986; Cade et al. 1988; Palmer 1988).
"...In the shallow areas around the Voisey's Bay area...everything have to be considered...all the little species that are around the ponds and in the willows, the bugs, I don't know what they are called, but they are part of the food chain...even by the fish they are eaten, cause the fish eat anything that falls into the lakes...". (from Williamson 1997:73)
Ecosystems complexity can also be seen in the freshwater environment of Labrador. Rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes provide habitat for aquatic vertebrate and invertebrate species. Fish such as brook and lake trout, Atlantic salmon and Arctic charr are just some of the species which depend on freshwater ecosystems to provide spawning and nursery habitat. These species feed on insects and other invertebrates living in the water. Connections also exist between the freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. For example, small fish become prey for large fish, which in turn, become prey for otter, mink and osprey. Freshwater ecosystems also provide important foods for humans, including Arctic charr, Atlantic salmon, trout, and northern pike.
The marine ecosystem of coastal Labrador is interconnected with both the freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Some species of fish, notably Atlantic salmon and Arctic charr, spend part of their life cycle in the marine environment. As a result, an accessible route between freshwater and marine ecosystems is essential. Marine ecosystems function in much the same way as terrestrial and aquatic systems, in that microscopic plankton (both plant and animal) provide food for intermediate species, such as cod, capelin, herring, shrimp, and filter-feeders such as scallops. These in turn provide food for marine mammals, including whales, seals, dolphins, and porpoises. Killer whales and polar bears, at the top of the food web, prey on bearded, grey, harbour, harp and ringed seals. Seals and marine fish are also an important component of the human diet in Labrador.
Numerous bird species inhabit terrestrial and marine near-shore environments, including harlequin duck and more abundant species such as Arctic tern, black scoter, Canada goose, common eider, common goldeneye, glaucous gull, great black-backed gull, green-winged teal, herring gull, Iceland gull, mallard, northern pintail, oldsquaw, and red-breasted merganser (JWEL 1997b). Seabirds such as common and thick-billed murres and black guillemots also inhabit coastal areas and offshore islands. They feed on marine fish and may, in turn, be preyed upon by peregrine falcons. Gulls prey on eggs and young of waterfowl and seabird species. Many of these species are harvested by the Innu and Inuit of Labrador, who have observed that some populations of migratory birds are decreasing (Williamson 1997). This decrease is partially attributed to the connection between seabirds and the marine ecosystem. The scarcity of food from the sea, such as capelin, is said to be affecting populations of seabirds that depend on fish for food, and is also causing gulls, which would normally feed on fish, to prey more aggressively on the eggs and young of sea ducks and other species.
"Innu harvesting activities are generally highly integrated and may shift rapidly from one kind to another depending on circumstances." (Armitage 1990:52)
Humans are probably one of the best examples of a species that plays
a role in many different ecosystems. Humans move freely among terrestrial,
freshwater, and marine environments, and have the ability to use many different
resources. Aboriginal people in Labrador have long harvested species at
all levels in the food web, from capelin to seals to polar bear, and from
berries to Arctic hare to black bear. Therefore, changes that affect any
part of the terrestrial, freshwater, or marine ecosystems have the potential
to affect humans.
"The various components of a landscape are distinguished and described not only in terms of physical features and ecosystem types, but in terms of how energy and materials are transported and distributed across the landscape by biogeophysical processes, species movements or human activities." (Hammond and Innes 1997: 3)
Often, issues of environmental change and ecological integrity occur
at large scales, both of time and distance. Landscape ecology recognizes
the holistic nature of the land and ocean, and provides a context for addressing
how ecosystems influence and respond to change. Ecological interactions
are understood by incorporating appropriate spatial and temporal scales
in discussing particular species and their interactions. The following
are some of the more useful concepts in landscape ecology:
Examples of Ecological Movements and Interactions
Although landscape ecology can be used to discuss all human and wildlife movements and interactions within the Landscape Region, the following discussion will focus on a few representative species that illustrate some important functions in the landscape. The figures on the following pages are used to show some of the movements and locations of these species in the Landscape Region. Species selected represent broad categories (i.e., marine mammals, fish, and birds) and are considered unique from an ecological management perspective (i.e., keystone, umbrella, vulnerable, and flagship species). Information is taken from both direct observations and information extrapolated from known habitat preferences and landscape and seascape features.
Because Labrador is located between tundra and boreal forest regions,
its ecosystems consist of resident and seasonal migrants representative
of both regions. Migrants (e.g., waterfowl, shorebirds, whales) may originate
from as far as South America or as near as Baffin Island. Many animals
found in Labrador and Ungava are present during the summer to breed before
moving south in search of other landscapes. Each summer, for example, several
seal species, whales, and polar bears appear along the coast (Figure 2.7).
The presence of these species depends largely on the time of year, since
most of those occurring in Labrador are migratory.
The minke whale is the most common whale feeding off Labrador waters in the summer, but by October or November most have begun their migration south to Florida (Lien 1985). Because it is at the top of its food web, the minke whale is considered an umbrella species. Its continued existence implies species below it in the food web are also healthy.
"You go out there [the sina] end of March and first of April, you can see...bunches of eider ducks in small open holes...the polar bears are migrating too...they're following the route [the sina].." Williamson 1997: 69)
Labrador is the southern extent of the range of some species. Polar bears spend most of the year in the Arctic, but usually appear on the Labrador coast during the spring and occasionally during the summer. The number of polar bears on the Labrador coast each year depends on ice conditions, as most apparently drift south on ice floes to hunt ringed seals. The polar bear is an example of a vulnerable species because it exists at low densities and moves over very large areas annually.
Most shorebirds (e.g., white-rumped sandpiper and semipalmated plover)
breeding or staging in Labrador migrate along resting and feeding areas
to winter in Central and South America (Figure 2.8). At this scale, Labrador
represents a small, though absolutely vital, component (core site or hot
spot) of the annual habitat requirements of all those species.
Other seasonal migrants, such as waterfowl, may move shorter distances.
For example, harlequin ducks leave their breeding habitat in Labrador to
winter along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to the southeastern United
States (Figure 2.9).
An example of a population moving great distances across the Labrador landscape is the George River Caribou Herd. These far-ranging animals congregate in the thousands during spring calving, often hundreds of kilometres from the winter feeding areas (Figure 2.10). Within the Landscape Region, river valleys serve as important corridors for caribou movement. Since 1992-1993, some caribou have used coastal habitat within the Saglek/Hopedale Land Region during winter for foraging, relief from deep snow, and predator avoidance (J. Schaefer, pers. comm.). As many as 10,000 individuals (one to two percent of the total herd) move in a northeasterly direction from the main wintering area to the west to occupy the coastal influence zone for up to four months. Areas between patches of winter habitat on the coast may provide temporary corridors subject to changing habitat factors (e.g., snow and ice conditions). With the onset of spring melting conditions (late April-early May), caribou have been observed moving westward along river valleys to the calving area in the vicinity of George River.
At the Landscape Region scale, the coastal, riverine and interior influence
zones have profound effects on the movement of species. Watercourses, and
their associated watersheds often are dominant features of the landscape.
While some species do not recognize or respond to watercourse boundaries
and can be found throughout the Landscape Region, others occur only in
particular riverine or lake habitats.
"...ice fishing continues on into the spring, but the sites change according to travel conditions and the movement of charr." (Williamson 1997: 55)
An important influence zone in the Landscape Region are watersheds (Figure
2.11) that drain to the coast via streams and rivers. The rivers in these
watersheds are also major access routes from the coast to the interior,
providing migration routes for various species, including Arctic charr
and harlequin duck.
Landlocked Arctic charr are distributed throughout the region, occurring
primarily in patches defined by isolated ponds and lakes that became cut
off from the ocean by post-glacial uplift of the land, which created rapids
and waterfalls impossible to cross on the streams draining these waterbodies
(Figure 2.12).
Anadromous charr populations are distributed along the entire coast of Labrador, most abundantly in the area north of Hamilton Inlet. Typically, the anadromous stocks spawn and are reared in freshwater, and move down the stream and river influence zones to the sea at age 3 to 4 years. While at sea, the smolt and adults tend to remain in the local bays to which their home river drains.
Harlequin ducks (Figure 2.13) use a variety of patches and corridors
in the Landscape Region. Adult birds appear along the ice-edge influence
zone and in estuaries in late April/early May where they use patches of
open water. As the river ice breaks up, individuals fly upstream using
the river as a corridor. By June, breeding pairs are established on their
patches of territory along a river system of rapids and pools. Males begin
to leave these habitats in mid-June and fly north to moulting areas in
the Labrador Sea. Broods hatch in mid-July and remain within a patch of
brood rearing habitat until late in the summer. If the water levels drop
substantially, however, the broods follow the river corridor downstream
to deep-water patches or into estuaries. All harlequin ducks migrate south
in the fall to winter out of the Landscape Region.
Hawks, falcons, and eagles nest on the steep cliffs (Figure 2.14) associated with the river valleys. Their breeding habitats include coastal islands and along all of the major waterways: the Fraser River, Kogaluk River and Notakwanon River, and Anaktalik Brook and Konrad Brook (JWEL 1995; JWEL 1996). Golden eagle, peregrine falcon, and gyrfalcon use specific cliffs with suitable ledges/overhangs as nesting sites, primarily within the Fraser River Land Region and Saglek/Hopedale Land Region. These species may occur within the Landscape Region from late March to November, when they occupy a core site or nest within a territory which they defend, and a broader area over which they forage for prey. Migration corridors of these predatory birds into and out of the Landscape Region are unknown.
"Voisey's Bay has always been considered a good place for otter because of the many rivers flowing into the Bay" (Williamson 1997: 29).
River otters occur inland along all of the major rivers (Banfield 1974). Otters are most abundant within the aquatic and riverbank habitats of the Fraser River Land Region. Their movement along waterways is similar to those of harlequin ducks and anadramous fish. Within an individual's home range, river valleys serve as influence zones and corridors. On occasion, and where barriers such as steep hills do not exist, influence zones may include more than one drainage system. A consistently high density of river otter in these areas, even with intensive trapping, can be interpreted as indicative of the ecological integrity of freshwater systems.
"...you got the harp seals come out past the sina in the spring, leaves their migrating place and goes north starting March..." (from Williamson 1997:72).
In addition to the major watersheds, the other major influence zone
is the coastal islands and shoreline. For seals (and marine mammals in
general), the land-sea boundary at the ice edges (in winter) and shorelines
(in summer) are important for movement and habitat use. Six species of
seals occur throughout the seascape of the Landscape Region during summer
(Figure 2.15): harp, hooded, ringed, harbour, and (less commonly) gray
and bearded. In winter, harp and hooded seals move along the edge of the
fast ice to regions far to the south, while harbour seals tend to move
along the fast ice to frozen rivers throughout the Landscape Region. Ringed
seals are scattered throughout the zone of fast ice and use the edges of
the sina as feeding areas, denning sites, whelping grounds, and dispersal
points into the sea. They follow the sina throughout the winter as ice
forms and breaks up in response to changes in air temperature and wind.
The common eider (Figure 2.16) uses the land-sea boundary in the summer for breeding on coastal islands and feeding on molluscs in intertidal and shallow subtidal zones. Small islands with some vegetation provide nesting habitat within the Landscape Region, as well as farther north. The Labrador coast serves as a corridor for spring migration. In the fall, individuals migrate along offshore corridors to wintering areas farther south and off the fast ice edge.
The people of Labrador also respond to the dynamics of the landscape
and seascape through their movement patterns. While many communities are
located along the coast, people must move across the land and sea to hunt,
fish, trap, cut firewood, pick berries, and visit other communities. Water
provides access along the coast and inland. Ice acts as a barrier to movement
during fall and spring (freezing/thawing), while during winter it may provide
access to the sea and inland areas.
Along the coast, seals and caribou provide important resources to both Innu and Inuit, while inland, caribou is the primary resource harvested. When caribou are within the Landscape Region, they generally winter along the coast and islands and then migrate inland along river valley corridors to the calving areas adjacent to the Landscape Region (JWEL 1997h). Caribou wintering along the inland plateaus can be reached by travelling along the frozen river valleys and over the plateaus. Seals are of cultural importance to the Inuit and, as a result, the movements of Inuit closely follows that of seals across the seascape and fast ice throughout the Landscape Region.
"...life on the land is linked to and inseparable from the social, cultural and spiritual dimension of Inuit life" (Williamson 1997).
"Kinship plays an essential role in determining access to the land and wildlife resources, and the way in which bush food is distributed among individuals and groups." (Armitage 1990: 123).
However, human movements (Figure 2.17) across the landscape and seascapes are not solely dictated by the movements of hunted animals. Cultural and social factors are also important influences on human use of the landscape and seascape. For example, socially-determined boundaries, corridors, and patches, such as hunting territories, sealing berths, and berry picking grounds also determine human movements within the Landscape Region. Areas of intensive human use and movements generally occur close to communities, along the coast and nearshore islands, and in the forested inner bays year round. However, people also travel great distances inland in the winter using snowmobiles to access important harvesting areas and places that have special social or cultural significance. The residents of the North Coast communities in Labrador also use the marine ice and water as a corridor to travel to harvesting areas, and to other communities to visit friends and family, thus maintaining social and cultural ties (Brice-Bennett 1977). The major snowmobile and small-boat routes used by the Inuit in the Nain District of Labrador are shown in Figure 2.17, which is a good illustration of human movements across the landscape and seascape. The Inuit have stated that they require this large territory to live as a culture (Williamson 1997).
The Arctic and sub-Arctic ecosystems in which the Aboriginal people
of Labrador live have a relatively low productivity and biomass, as compared
to temperate, boreal, or tropical ecosystems. As a result, species upon
which they are dependent, such as caribou and seals, require extensive
areas of suitable habitat, and this in turn shapes use of the ecosystems
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Personal Communications
Ashini, D., Director, Innu Rights and Environment
Brazil, J., Non-Consumptive and Endangered Species Biologist, Department of Forest Resources and Agrifoods.
Innes, L., Innu Nation Environmental Advisor
Lyle, W., Department of Forest Resources and Agrifoods, Northwest River, Labrador.
Northcott, T., Scientific Authority and Primary Researcher 1995-1997, VBNC Caribou Component Studies.
Schaefer, J., Regional Biologist, Labrador Region, Department of Forest Resources and Agrifoods.
Tuck, J., Archaeology Unit, Department of Anthropology, Memorial
University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NF.
